Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-6 (section)

==== 6.3.5.2 Building Design and Construction ====

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Architectural and urban design regulations at the single-building scale (building codes and guidelines) facilitate climate responsive buildings that adapt to a changing climate and have the potential to collectively change user behaviour during extreme weather events ( [[#Osman--2019|Osman and Sevinc, 2019]] ). They include buildings that are adaptive to ensure user comfort during extremes of hot and cold as well as to floods (e.g., building on stilts and amphibian architecture). Changes to design standards can scale quickly and widely, but retrofit of existing buildings is expensive, so care must be taken to avoid potential negative impacts on social equity (Schünemann et al., 2020; Matopoulos, Kovács and Hayes, 2014; [[#Ajibade--2014|Ajibade and McBean, 2014]] ; [[#Bastidas-Arteaga--2019|Bastidas-Arteaga and Stewart, 2019]] ). Buildings can be adapted to the negative consequences of climate change by altering their characteristics, for example increasing the insulation values (e.g., van Hooff et al., 2014; [[#Makantasi--2016|Makantasi and Mavrogianni, 2016]] ; [[#Fisk--2015|Fisk, 2015]] ; Fosas et al., 2018; Barbosa, Vicente and Santos, 2015; [[#Invidiata--2016|Invidiata and Ghisi, 2016]] ; Pérez-Andreu et al., 2018; Taylor et al., 2018; Triana, Lamberts and Sassi, 2018), adding solar shading (e.g., van Hooff et al., 2014; [[#Makantasi--2016|Makantasi and Mavrogianni, 2016]] ; Barbosa, Vicente and Santos, 2015; [[#Invidiata--2016|Invidiata and Ghisi, 2016]] ; Pérez-Andreu et al., 2018; Taylor et al., 2018; Triana, Lamberts and Sassi, 2018; [[#Dodoo--2016|Dodoo and Gustavsson, 2016]] ; [[#Osman--2019|Osman and Sevinc, 2019]] ), increasing natural ventilation, preferably during the night (e.g., van Hooff et al., 2014; [[#Makantasi--2016|Makantasi and Mavrogianni, 2016]] ; Pérez-Andreu et al., 2018; Triana, Lamberts and Sassi, 2018; [[#Dodoo--2016|Dodoo and Gustavsson, 2016]] ; [[#Osman--2019|Osman and Sevinc, 2019]] ; [[#Mulville--2016|Mulville and Stravoravdis, 2016]] ; Cellura et al., 2017; Fosas et al., 2018; Dino and Meral Akgül, 2019), solar orientation of bedroom windows (Schuster et al., 2017), applying high-albedo materials for the building envelope (van Hooff et al., 2014; [[#Invidiata--2016|Invidiata and Ghisi, 2016]] ; Baniassadi et al., 2018; Triana, Lamberts and Sassi, 2018), altering the thermal mass (van Hooff et al., 2014; [[#Mulville--2016|Mulville and Stravoravdis, 2016]] ; [[#Din--2017|Din and Brotas, 2017]] ), adding green roofs/facades to poorly insulated buildings ( [[#Geneletti--2016|Geneletti and Zardo, 2016]] ; Skelhorn, Lindley and Levermore, 2014; van Hooff et al., 2014; de Munck et al., 2018; [[#Feitosa--2018|Feitosa and Wilkinson, 2018]] ) and for water harvesting (Sepehri et al., 2018).

In general, the most promising adaptation measures are a combination of solar shading with increased levels of insulation and ample possibilities to apply natural ventilation to cool down a building (e.g., van Hooff et al., 2014; [[#Makantasi--2016|Makantasi and Mavrogianni, 2016]] ; Fosas et al., 2018; Barbosa, Vicente and Santos, 2015; Taylor et al., 2018; Triana, Lamberts and Sassi, 2018; [[#Dodoo--2016|Dodoo and Gustavsson, 2016]] ). However, it must be noted that the cooling potential of natural ventilation will decrease in the future because of increasing outdoor air temperatures ( [[#Gilani--2020|Gilani and O’Brien, 2020]] ). Increased insulation (including through green solutions) without shading and ventilation can also lead to adverse impacts through the lowering of nighttime cooling (Reder et al., 2018). Similarly, air conditioning performance also decreases with increasing outdoor temperatures, in addition to being maladaptive where use increases anthropogenic heat emissions into the urban area, and global greenhouse gas emissions if powered by carbon intensive energy systems (Wang et al., 2018c).

Passive cooling is a design-based, widely used strategy to create naturally ventilated buildings, making it an important alternative to address the urban heat island for residential and commercial buildings (Al-Obaidi, Ismail and Rahman, 2014). Generally, passive cooling is achieved by controlling the interactions between the building envelope and the natural elements. Façade fixes such as overhangs, louvres and insulated walls are effective at shading buildings from solar radiation, while complex ones such as texture walls, diode roofs and roof ponds are effective at minimising heat gains from solar radiation and ambient heat ( [[#Oropeza-Perez--2018|Oropeza-Perez and Østergaard, 2018]] ). Passive cooling is inspired also by traditional design forms, for example from Mediterranean, Islamic and Mughal architecture in the Indian sub-continent ( [[#Di%20Turi--2017|Di Turi and Ruggiero, 2017]] ; Izadpanahi, Farahani and Nikpey, 2021).

In addition, wind towers, solar chimneys and air vents are features that facilitate cool air circulation within buildings while dissipating heat (Bhamare, Rathod and Banerjee, 2019). These features may be arranged to address hotspots or highly frequented spaces within buildings. Similar to NBS, the effectiveness of passive cooling to ameliorate the urban heat island varies widely depending on the location of the sun, wind direction and the type of strategy used. For instance, natural ventilation strategies (e.g., wind towers, solar chimneys, etc.) have shown temperature reductions of up to 14°C (Bhamare, Rathod and Banerjee, 2019; [[#Calautit--2016|Calautit and Hughes, 2016]] ; Rabani et al., 2014). Shading strategies alone can reduce indoor temperatures by 3°C, while heat sinks (in which heat is directed at a medium such as water) may result in indoor temperatures up to 6°C lower than the outdoor temperature ( [[#Oropeza-Perez--2018|Oropeza-Perez and Østergaard, 2018]] ). More systemic interventions, such as altering urban form through urban planning, can mitigate the urban heat island across suburbs and cities ( [[#Lee--2019|Lee and Levermore, 2019]] ; [[#Takkanon--2019|Takkanon and Chantarangul, 2019]] ; Yin et al., 2018; [[#Liang--2015|Liang and Keener, 2015]] ; [[#Emmanuel--2018|Emmanuel and Steemers, 2018]] ). Experience in Kano (Nigeria) has shown that incorporating Indigenous knowledge into building design and urban planning can increase resilience to heat and flood risks (Barau et al., 2015). A review by [[#Lemi--2019|Lemi (2019)]] suggests that traditional ecological knowledge can provide wider climate change adaptation benefits.

Limits on housing and building adaptation include failure of regulatory systems so that formal design standards are not followed even when legally required (Arku et al., 2016; [[#Durst--2017|Durst and Wegmann, 2017]] ; [[#Pan--2012|Pan and Garmston, 2012]] ; [[#Awuah--2014|Awuah and Hammond, 2014]] ). This can be a result of pressures from clients for cheaper structures, developers illegally cutting costs or regulators lacking capacity for enforcement. Technological innovation can also be slow to embed itself in building norms and standards. Innovation also lies outside the formal sector and can include artisanal building techniques that may have adaptive value. Examples from Latin America demonstrate how initiatives in informal settlement improvement associated with housing policy, guaranteeing access to land and decent housing, show the opportunity for overarching policies encompassing development, poverty reduction, disaster-risk reduction, climate-change adaptation and climate-change mitigation (see [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-12#12.5.5|Section 12.5.5]] ).

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