Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-18 (section)

=== 18.5.1 Regional Synthesis of Climate Resilient Development ===

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In synthesising regional knowledge relevant to the pursuit of CRD, this section first considers geographic heterogeneity in regional responses of common climate variables to increases in globally averaged temperatures. Such heterogeneity is a key driver of climate risk in different global regions, as well as human and natural systems within those regions. This is followed by synthesis of various national development indicators, aggregated to the regional level, as well as various challenges, opportunities and options supporting CRD reported within WGII regional chapters.

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==== 18.5.1.1 Climate Change Risk for Different Global Regions ====

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Two important elements of understanding the opportunities and challenges associated with the pursuit of CRD in different regional contexts are a) the geographic variability in climate conditions that shape livelihoods, behaviours and responses of human and natural systems; and b) how those conditions could shift in the future in response to climate change, which determines the additional burden that climate change could create for adaptation and sustainable development.

The climate analyses of WGI provide information on regional differences in temperature, rainfall and sea surface temperatures for different global regions and how they are projected to change in response to different levels of aggregate global warming (Table 18.4). Such data reveal that even when aggregated to broad geographic regions, significant variations exist for all of these parameters, which is a function of the baseline climatology of each region. For example, temperatures in Africa and Australia are, on average, warmer than in Europe or North America. Significant variations are also observed for rainfall variables. Such regional variation in climate conditions is part of the regional context that shapes current patterns of development of the past present and future. They influence biodiversity and natural resource availability as well as exposure to climatic extremes (tropical storms, heatwaves and drought) that contribute to disasters.

The WGI data also indicate that increases in globally averaged temperatures will have different consequences for regional climate change (Table 18.4), including variation in the magnitude and, for precipitation, even the direction of change ( ''very high confidence'' ). For example, although average temperatures, daily minimum temperature and the number of days over a given threshold are projected to increase in all regions except Antarctica, the magnitude of the change varies. Moreover, little change is projected for daily maximum temperatures across different regions. Nevertheless, the number of days over different temperature thresholds such as 35°C increases markedly in most regions, reflecting the disproportionate impact that global warming has on the tails of temperature distributions. Given outcomes in many systems including public health, agriculture, ecosystems and biodiversity, and infrastructure are often associated with biophysical thresholds (e.g., physiological or design thresholds), those regions where such thresholds are increasingly exceeded due to climate change may experience disproportionately higher impacts ( ''very high confidence'' ). Given such temperatures occur more frequently in regions such as Africa and Central and South America, this disproportionate exposure is exacerbated by disproportionate vulnerability, adaptation gaps and development needs ( ''very high confidence'' ; [[#18.2.4|Section 18.2.4]] ; Table 18.4).

The regional response of precipitation to globally averaged temperature increases is less clear than temperature, in part due to high intra-region variability. Average daily precipitation remains fairly stable in all global regions in response to higher magnitudes of global warming (Table 18.4). However, 5-day precipitation totals provide a clearer signal of increasing hydrologic activity in response to higher globally averaged temperatures (Table 18.4). Such data does not necessarily reflect changes in rainfall extremes that could occur with downstream consequences for hazards such as drought or flooding. Similarly, while sea surface temperatures (SSTs) are more uniform across global ocean basins, all basins are anticipated to warm in response to higher globally averaged temperatures (Table 18.5). Unlike temperature, however, SST increases are anticipated to be only a fraction of the globally averaged increase in temperature, due in large part to the heat capacity of the oceans. Nevertheless, such higher SSTs have implications not only for ocean ecosystems and the distribution of marine species, but also for weather patterns, such as formation and intensity of tropical cyclones ( ''very high confidence'' ).

The other aspect of the regional climate responses to global temperature increases that is important for CRD is the marked differences observed between changes in response to 1.5°C versus 4°C of warming. Higher levels of global warming are associated with higher regional changes, including changes in extremes of temperature. This in turn increases climate risk to exposed and vulnerable human and natural systems, thereby increasing demand for adaptation. If that demand is not met, then the adaptation gap will be larger, with greater risk of loss and damage ( ''very high confidence'' ) ( [[#Schaeffer--2015|Schaeffer et al., 2015]] ; [[#Chen--2016|Chen et al., 2016]] ; United Nations Environment Programme, 2021). This is true not only for regions, but also at the sectoral level ( [[#18.5.2|Section 18.5.2]] ). Therefore, CRD pathways must balance the demands for emissions reductions to reduce exposure, adaptation to manage residual climate change risks, and sustainable development to address vulnerability and enhance capacity for sustainable development.

'''Table 18.5 |''' Projected sea surface temperature change ranges by global warming level and ocean biome (°C). Ranges are 5th and 95th percentiles from SSP5-8.5 WGI CMIP6 ensemble results. There is little variation in the 5th and 95th percentile values by GWL across the SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0 and SSP5-8.5 projections. Source: WGI AR6 Interactive Atlas (Gutiérrez et al., 2021).

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Global warming level'''

! '''All ocean biomes'''

! '''Northern Hemisphere; high latitudes'''

! '''Northern Hemisphere; Subtropics'''

! '''Equatorial'''

! '''Southern Hemisphere; Subtropics'''

! '''Southern Hemisphere; high latitudes'''

! '''Gulf of Mexico'''

! '''Eastern Boundaries'''

! '''Amazon River'''

! '''Arabian Sea'''

! '''Indonesian flowthrough'''

|-
| '''4°C'''

| 1.9 to 2.4

| 2.0 to 3.3

| 2.2 to 2.8

| 2.1 to 3.0

| 1.8 to 2.4

| 1.3 to 2.0

| 2.1 to 2.8

| 2.1 to 2.7

| 1.7 to 2.5

| 2.3 to 2.9

| 1.9 to 2.7

|-
| '''3°C'''

| 1.3 to 1.7

| 1.2 to 2.2

| 1.4 to 2.4

| 1.4 to 2.2

| 1.2 to 1.7

| 0.7 to 1.4

| 1.5 to 2.3

| 1.4 to 2.1

| 1.2 to 2.0

| 1.6 to 2.2

| 1.3 to 1.9

|-
| '''2°C'''

| 0.6 to 1.0

| 0.5 to 1.4

| 0.7 to 1.4

| 0.7 to 1.3

| 0.5 to 1

| 0.3 to 0.8

| 0.6 to 1.4

| 0.6 to 1.3

| 0.6 to 1.3

| 0.6 to 1.3

| 0.5 to 1.2

|-
| '''1.5°C'''

| 0.2 to 0.7

| 0.1 to 0.9

| 0.2 to 1.0

| 0.2 to 0.8

| 0.2 to 0.6

| 0.1 to 0.5

| 0.2 to 1.0

| 0.2 to 0.9

| 0.2 to 0.9

| 0.2 to 0.9

| 0.1 to 0.8

|}

'''Table 18.4 |''' Projected continental level result ranges for select temperature and precipitation climate change variables by global warming level. Ranges are 5th and 95th percentiles from SSP5-8.5 WGI CMIP6 ensemble results. There is little variation in the 5th and 95th percentile values by GWL across the SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0 and SSP5-8.5 projections. Source: WGI AR6 Interactive Atlas (Gutiérrez et al., 2021).

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Climate variable'''

! '''Global warming level'''

! '''All Regions'''

! '''North America'''

! '''Europe'''

! '''Asia'''

! '''Central–South America'''

! '''Africa'''

! '''Australia'''

! '''Antarctica'''

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Mean temperature (°C)'''

| '''4°C'''

| 12 to 15

| 8 to 11

| 5 to 9

| 12 to 14

| 24 to 27

| 26 to 29

| 24 to 27

| −33 to −27

|-
| '''3°C'''

| 11 to 14

| 6 to 11

| 4 to 7

| 10 to 14

| 23 to 26

| 25 to 28

| 23 to 26

| −35 to −26

|-
| '''2°C'''

| 10 to 13

| 5 to 9

| 3 to 6

| 8 to 12

| 22 to 25

| 24 to 27

| 22 to 25

| −36 to −27

|-
| '''1.5°C'''

| 9 to 12

| 4 to 8

| 2 to 5

| 8 to 12

| 22 to 24

| 24 to 26

| 22 to 24

| −36 to −27

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Minimum of daily minimum temperatures (°C)'''

| '''4°C'''

| −12 to −5

| −25 to −15

| −22 to −14

| −18 to −9

| 11 to 15

| 10 to 14

| 5 to 10

| −64 to −48

|-
| '''3°C'''

| −13 to −6

| −27 to −15

| −24 to −15

| −20 to −11

| 10 to 15

| 8 to 14

| 4 to 10

| −64 to −50

|-
| '''2°C'''

| −15 to −8

| −30 to −18

| −27 to −17

| −22 to −13

| 9 to 14

| 7 to 13

| 3 to 9

| −65 to −51

|-
| '''1.5°C'''

| −16 to −9

| −32 to −20

| −28 to −19

| −23 to −14

| 8 to 14

| 6 to 12

| 3 to 9

| −66 to −51

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Maximum of daily maximum temperatures (°C)'''

| '''4°C'''

| 32 to 37

| 32 to 38

| 28 to 33

| 35 to 40

| 36 to 43

| 40 to 47

| 41 to 49

| −12 to −5

|-
| '''3°C'''

| 31 to 39

| 31 to 38

| 28 to 34

| 35 to 41

| 35 to 44

| 39 to 51

| 41 to 54

| −12 to −3

|-
| '''2°C'''

| 30 to 37

| 30 to 36

| 26 to 33

| 33 to 39

| 34 to 43

| 38 to 50

| 39 to 53

| −13 to −4

|-
| '''1.5°C'''

| 29 to 36

| 29 to 35

| 25 to 31

| 32 to 39

| 33 to 42

| 38 to 49

| 39 to 52

| −14 to −5

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Number of days with maximum temperature above 35°C—bias adjusted'''

| '''4°C'''

| 81 to 106

| 36 to 50

| 11 to 22

| 57 to 77

| 138 to 194

| 153 to 210

| 140 to 168

| 0 to 0

|-
| '''3°C'''

| 66 to 87

| 27 to 40

| 6 to 15

| 44 to 59

| 100 to 153

| 131 to 183

| 124 to 147

| 0 to 0

|-
| '''2°C'''

| 52 to 68

| 19 to 29

| 4 to 8

| 33 to 45

| 61 to 106

| 116 to 151

| 102 to 124

| 0 to 0

|-
| '''1.5°C'''

| 45 to 58

| 16 to 24

| 2 to 5

| 30 to 39

| 43 to 85

| 107 to 133

| 94 to 115

| 0 to 0

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Near-surface total precipitation (mm/d)'''

| '''4°C'''

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 2

| 2 to 3

| 4 to 5

| 2 to 3

| 1 to 2

| 1 to 1

|-
| '''3°C'''

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 2

| 2 to 3

| 3 to 5

| 2 to 3

| 1 to 2

| 1 to 1

|-
| '''2°C'''

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 2

| 2 to 3

| 3 to 5

| 2 to 3

| 1 to 2

| 1 to 1

|-
| '''1.5°C'''

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 2

| 2 to 3

| 3 to 5

| 2 to 3

| 1 to 2

| 1 to 1

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Maximum 5-day precipitation amount (mm)'''

| '''4°C'''

| 79 to 99

| 75 to 93

| 53 to 71

| 81 to 105

| 118 to 168

| 68 to 113

| 81 to 124

| 20 to 29

|-
| '''3°C'''

| 66 to 99

| 68 to 87

| 48 to 68

| 70 to 101

| 97 to 165

| 60 to 118

| 76 to 129

| 19 to 27

|-
| '''2°C'''

| 64 to 93

| 65 to 84

| 47 to 65

| 66 to 95

| 93 to 162

| 55 to 107

| 73 to 122

| 18 to 26

|-
| '''1.5°C'''

| 63 to 91

| 63 to 83

| 46 to 64

| 64 to 93

| 92 to 160

| 52 to 105

| 74 to 119

| 18 to 25

|}

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==== 18.5.1.2 Regional Perspectives on Climate Resilient Development ====

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The various regional chapters within the AR6 WGII report each provide insights into progress towards CRD as well as the opportunities and challenges associated with future pursuit of different CRD pathways. Common indicators of development reflect the significant diversity that exists across different global regions with respect to their development context ( ''very high confidence)'' . For example, the Human Development Index, recently adjusted to reflect the effect of planetary pressures (PPAHDI), illustrates the overall higher levels of development of North America and European countries of the Global North as well as Australasia compared with Asia, Africa, Central and South America and small islands of the Global South. Generally, this reflects the higher levels of vulnerability and greater need for both sustainable developments to reduce poverty and support sustainable economies as well as climate action to address climate risk (Table 18.6).

However, even within a given region, there is significant variation in PPAHDI among nations. Such differences reflect fundamental differences in historical patterns of development, as well as current development needs and challenges, and they imply differences in what future development pathways would be consistent with CRD. In addition, nations and regions with lower PPAHDI values suggests greater capacity challenges for both GHG mitigation and climate adaptation. However, nations and regions with high PPAHDI values also tend to have higher per capita CO 2 -e emissions production, indicating that economic development based on fossil fuel use undermines both efforts on climate action as well as the SDGs ( ''very high confidence'' ) (Figure 18.6). Such challenges are also reflected by differential Gini coefficients and metrics of state fragility among regions, which reflect inequities in income distribution and broader vulnerability of nations and regions to shocks and stressors (Figure 18.6). In addition, high variation is observed in CO 2 emissions production, even among comparatively wealthy nations, suggesting CO 2 -e emissions of some nations are tightly coupled to development, while others have pursued more carbon neutral development trajectories. Even within regions such as Africa, Asia, Central and South America, and Europe, large within-region variations are observed in inequality and state fragility, suggesting high variability among nations. Given the emphasis in the sustainable development and CRD literature on equity and vulnerability, addressing such determinants of vulnerability is a core design principle for CRDPs.

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[[File:659295ba07c1a180e736cdda6bb4ba3f IPCC_AR6_WGII_Figure_18_006.png]]

'''Figure 18.6 |''' '''This figure presents National Gini coefficients''' '''(most recent year available; n = 141 ( [[#World%20Bank--2021|World Bank, 2021]] ), the Fragile States Index (2021; n = 163; ( [[#Fund%20for%20Peace--2021|Fund for Peace, 2021]] ), and per capita CO2 emissions (2018; n = 169), [[#Human%20Development%20Report%20Office--2020|Human Development Report Office, 2020]] ) plotted against the Planetary Pressures-Adjusted Human Development Index (2020, n = 163 ( [[#Human%20Development%20Report%20Office--2020|Human Development Report Office, 2020]] )'''

In addition to development indicators, the literature assessed in the WGII regional chapters indicates that different regions experience a range of development challenges and opportunities that affect the pursuit of CRD ( ''very high confidence'' ). These represent dimensions of governance, institutions, economic development, capacity, and social and cultural factors that shape decision making, investment and development trajectories. For example, significant challenges exist within regions with respect to managing debt and the ability to fund or finance climate action and sustainable development interventions ( ''very high confidence'' ). On the other hand, a broad range of opportunities exist to pursue CRD including challenges with debt and financing of adaptation competing policy objectives, social protection programmes, economic diversification, investing in education and human capital development, and expanding disaster risk reduction efforts ( ''very high confidence'' ).

There are a wide variety of more focused options for climate action and sustainable development ( ''very high confidence'' ). Such options have potential for synergies and trade-offs including implications for GHG mitigation, land use change and conservation, food and water, or social equity. Despite variation in development context, regional assessments suggest CRD efforts will be associated with some common features. For example, in all regions, existing vulnerability and inequality exacerbate climate risk and therefore pose challenges to CRD ( ''very high confidence'' ). Furthermore, low prioritisation of sustainability and climate action in government decision making, low perceptions of climate risk, and path dependence in governance systems and decision-making processes all pose barriers to system transitions, transformation and CRD ( ''very high confidence'' ).

'''Table 18.6 |''' Regional synthesis of dimensions of climate resilient development. For each region, quantitative information is provided on common development indicators including the planetary pressures-adjusted human development index (PPHDI, 2020, ''n'' = 169 ( [[#Human%20Development%20Report%20Office--2020|Human Development Report Office, 2020]] ), Gini coefficients (GINI, most recent year available; ''n'' = 156 ( [[#World%20Bank--2021|World Bank, 2021]] ), Fragile States Index (FRAGILITY; 2021; ''n'' = 173 ( [[#Fund%20for%20Peace--2021|Fund for Peace, 2021]] ), and per capita CO 2 emissions production (CO 2 /PC, 2018; ''n'' = 169 ( [[#Human%20Development%20Report%20Office--2020|Human Development Report Office, 2020]] ). Each indicator is associated with a mean value among nations within a specific region as well as the range (minimum to maximum) value. In addition, the table contains evidence of sustainable development challenges and opportunities as well as adaptation/sustainable development options and potential synergies and trade-offs associated with their implementation. Synergies and trade-offs are categorised as follows: (T) Trade-off among policies and practices; (S+) Synergy among policies and practices that enhances sustainability; (S-) Synergy among policies and practices that undermines sustainability.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Region'''

! colspan="2"| '''''Development indicators'''''

'''mean (range)'''

! '''''Challenges'''''

! '''''Opportunities'''''

! '''''Options'''''

! '''''Synergies and trade-offs'''''

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Africa'''

| PPAHDI

| 0.53

(0.39–0.72)

| rowspan="4"| * Institutional and financial challenges in programming and implementing activities to support concrete adaptation measures ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 4.5)
* High debt levels exacerbate fiscal challenges and undermine economic resilience ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 4)
* Insufficient development and adaptation finance and accessibility of finance ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 4.5)
* Complexity of estimating the costs and benefits for adaptation measures in specific contexts ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 4.2)
* Exclusions of migrants and other vulnerable populations from social programmes ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.9.4|Section 9.9.4]] )
* Mismatch between the supply of, and demand for, climate services ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.5|Section 9.5]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Climate change literacy can enable the mainstreaming of climate change into national and sub-national developmental agendas ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.4.2|Section 9.4.2]] )
* Adaptive responses can be used as an opportunity for comprehensive, transformative change ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.6.2|Section 9.6.2]] )
* Investments in human capital can facilitate socioeconomic development and poverty reduction ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.9.1|Section 9.9.1]] )
* Strengthening the participation of women in decision making as well as advancing traditional and local knowledge can support climate action and sustainable livelihoods ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.9.3|Section 9.9.3]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Strengthening climate services ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.4.2|Section 9.4.2]] )
* Ecosystem-based adaptation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.11.4|Section 9.11.4.2]] )
* Economic diversification ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.12.3|Section 9.12.3]] )
* Intensive irrigation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 5.2)
* Agricultural and livelihood diversification ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.12.3|Section 9.12.3]] )
* Drought-resistant crop varieties ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 5.2)
* Soil and water conservation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 5.2)

| rowspan="4"| * (T) competing uses for water such as hydropower generation, irrigation and ecosystem requirements create trade-offs among different management objectives ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.7.3|Section 9.7.3]] )
* (T) migration in response to unfavourable environmental conditions provides opportunities for farmers but puts pressure on the provision of social services and reduces farm labour ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 5.2)
* (T) intensive irrigation contributes to the development of agriculture but has come at a cost to ecosystem integrity and human well-being ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 5.2)

|-
| GINI

| 42.8

(27.6–63.4)

|-
| FRAGILITY

| 87.3

(57.0–110.9)

|-
| CO2/PC

| 1.1

(0.0–8.1)

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Asia'''

| HPAHDI

| 0.65

(0.47–0.78)

| rowspan="4"| * Migration and displacement (Box 10.6)
* Uneven economic development ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.4|Section 10.4.6]] )
* Rapid land use change ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.4|Section 10.4.6]] )
* Increasing inequality ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.4|Section 10.4.6]] )
* Large, socially differentiated vulnerable populations ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.4|Section 10.4.6]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Investing in climate-resilient and sustainable infrastructure can be a source of green jobs as well as a means of reducing climate vulnerability ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.6.2|Section 10.6.2]] )
* Sustainable development pathways that connect climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction efforts can reduce climate vulnerability and increase resilience ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.6.2|Section 10.6.2]] )
* Social protection programmes can develop risk management strategies to address loss and damage from climate change ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.5.6|Section 10.5.6]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Risk insurance ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.5.5|Section 10.5.5]] )
* Climate-smart agriculture (10.4.5.5, Table 10.6)
* Wetland protection and restoration (Table 10.6)
* Aquifer storage and recovery (Table 10.6)
* Integrated smart water grids (Table 10.6)
* Disaster risk management (Table 10.6)
* Early warning systems (Table 10.6)
* Resettlement and migration (Table 10.6)
* Nature-based solutions in urban areas
* Coastal green infrastructure (Table 10.6)

| rowspan="4"| * (S+) nature-based adaptation solutions, wetland protection, and climate-smart agriculture enhance carbon sequestration (Table 10.6)
* (S+) disaster risk reduction and capacity building have synergistic interactions with climate adaptation when the two are effectively integrated ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.6.2|Section 10.6.2]] )
* (S+) environmental sustainability has benefits for relieving poverty and promoting social equity ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.6.4|Section 10.6.4]] )
* (T) intensive irrigation and other forms of water consumption can have a negative effect on water quality and aquatic ecosystems ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.6.3|Section 10.6.3]] )

|-
| GINI

| 34.9

(26.6–43.9)

|-
| FRAGILITY

| 73.6

(32.3–111.7)

|-
| CO 2 /PC

| 6.3

(0.3–38.0)

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Australasia'''

| PPAHDI

| 0.75

(0.70–0.81)

| rowspan="4"| * Underinvestment in adaptation, particularly in public health systems, given current and projected risks ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.3.6.3|Section 11.3.6.3]] )
* Underlying social and economic vulnerabilities exacerbate disadvantage among particular social groups ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.8.2|Section 11.8.2]] )
* Competing policy and planning objectives within governments ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.7.2|Section 11.7.2]] )
* Limits to adaptation across the region and among neighbours ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.7.2|Section 11.7.2]] )
* Fear of litigation and demands for compensation create disincentives for climate adaptation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.7.2|Section 11.7.2]] )
* Different climate change risk perceptions among different groups ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.7.2|Section 11.7.2]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Implementation of national policies and guidance on climate adaptation and resilience (Box 11.5)
* Cooperation among individual farmers for adaptation and regional innovation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.7.1|Section 11.7.1]] )
* Enhancing understanding of Indigenous knowledge and practices (Table 11.11)

| rowspan="4"| * Climate adaptation services, planning and tools from government and private sector providers ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.7.1|Section 11.7.1]] )
* Enhancing governance frameworks (Table 11.17)
* Building capacity for adaptation (Table 11.17)
* Community partnership and collaborative engagement (Table 11.17)
* Flexible decision making (Table 11.17)
* Reducing systemic vulnerabilities (Table 11.17)
* Providing adaptation funding and compensation mechanisms (Table 11.17)
* Addressing social attitudes and engagement in adaptation and climate action (Table 11.17)

| rowspan="4"| * (T) adapting to fire risk in peri-urban zones introduces potential trade-offs among ecological values and fuel reduction in treed landscapes ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.3.5|Section 11.3.5]] )

|-
| GINI

| 34.4

(34.4–34.4)

|-
| FRAGILITY

| 20.1

(18.4–21.8)

|-
| CO 2 /PC

| 12.1

(7.3–16.9)

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Central and South America'''

| PPAHDI

| 0.71

(0.62–0.78)

| rowspan="4"| * Vulnerability of informal settlements with chronic exposure to everyday, non-climate risks
* Limited political influence of poor and most vulnerable groups
* Poor market access of rural households
* Little consideration of the implications of NDCs for poverty and livelihoods
* Corruption, particularly in the construction and infrastructure sector
* Gender inequities in labour markets
* Limits to adaptation

| rowspan="4"| * Address existing development deficits, particularly the needs of informal settlements and economies
* Adopt collaborative approaches to decision making that integrate civic groups and communities as well as the private sector
* Enhance adoption of sustainable tourism and livelihood diversification

| rowspan="4"| * Upgrading of informal and vulnerable settlements
* Capacity building in national and city level government institutions
* Enhancing social protection programmes
* Integrated land use planning and risk-sensitive zoning
* Infrastructure greening
* disaster risk mitigation and management
* Emergency medical and public health preparedness
* Improving insurance mechanisms and climate financing
* Ecosystem conservation, protection and restoration
* Appropriate use of climate information and development of climate services

| rowspan="4"| * (S+) conservation and restoration of natural ecosystems have synergies with mitigation, adaptation and sustainable development ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-12#12.7.1|Section 12.7.1]] )

|-
| GINI

| 47.2

(38.6–57.9)

|-
| FRAGILITY

| 65.9 (35.9–92.6)

|-
| CO 2 /PC

| 2.2

(0.9–4.8)

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Europe'''

| PPAHDI

| 0.76

(0.52–0.83)

| rowspan="4"| * Mitigation and adaptation remain siloed around sectoral approaches (Box 13.3)
* Institutional, policy and behavioural lock-ins constrain the rate of system transitions ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.11|Section 13.11.4]] )
* Legislative and decision making process constraints on climate action ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.11|Section 13.11.4]] )
* High adaptation costs and concerns about effectiveness and feasibility ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.3.2|Section 13.3.2]] , Table 13.A.5)
* Competition for land use among adaptation and other uses ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.3.2|Section 13.3.2]] )
* Perceptions of climate change as irrelevant or not urgent ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.3.2|Section 13.3.2]] )
* Public budget and human capital limitations ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.3.2|Section 13.3.2]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Engagement in climate change knowledge, policy and practice networks (Box 13.3)
* National policies can lead to more ambitious and integrated climate planning and action with associated co-benefits (Box 13.3)
* System transformations towards more adaptive and climate-resilient systems ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.11|Section 13.11.4]] , Box 13.3)

| rowspan="4"| * Ecological restoration of habitats agroforestry and reforestation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.8.2|Section 13.8.2]] )
* ‘Smart farming’ and knowledge training ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.5.2.1|Section 13.5.2.1]] )
* Soil management practices ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.5.2.1|Section 13.5.2.1]] )
* Changing sowing dates and changes in cultivars ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.5.2.1|Section 13.5.2.1]] )
* Stricter enforcement of existing health regulations ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.7.2|Section 13.7.2]] )
* Integrated coastal zone management and marine spatial planning ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.4.2|Section 13.4.2]] )
* Nature-based solutions ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.4.2|Section 13.4.2]] )
* Climate services ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.6.2.3|Section 13.6.2.3]] )
* Tailored insurance products for specific physical climate risks ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.6.2.5|Section 13.6.2.5]] )
* Protection of world heritage sites ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.8.2|Section 13.8.2]] )

| rowspan="4"| * (T) wind farms support greenhouse gas mitigation but have ecosystem implications and impacts ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.4.2|Section 13.4.2]] )
* (T) adapting and mitigating climate change through afforestation and forest management may be hampered by biophysical and land use trade-offs ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.3.2|Section 13.3.2]] )

|-
| GINI

| 31.9

(24.6–41.3)

|-
| FRAGILITY

| 41.1 (16.2–72.9)

|-
| CO 2 /PC

| 6.8

(1.3–21.3)

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''North America'''

| PPAHDI

| 0.72

(0.72–0.73)

| rowspan="4"| * Lack of representation of all groups and communities in politics and decision making ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.3|Section 14.6.3]] )
* Economic and financial constraints on adaptation within communities ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.2|Section 14.6.2]] )
* Persistent social vulnerability and inequities (Sections 14.6.3, 14.4.7.3)
* Adaptation actions that are maladaptive and exacerbate existing inequities ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.2|Section 14.6.2.1]] )
* Constraints on capacity for data collection (Table 14.8)
* Limited organisational willingness to implement new and untested solutions (Table 14.8)

| rowspan="4"| * Increased focus on building adaptive capacity in small towns and rural areas ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.3|Section 14.6.3]] )
* Greater use of SDGs as a framework for equitable adaptation measures ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.3|Section 14.6.3]] )
* Broader and deeper recognition of the role of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge systems in adaptation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.3|Section 14.6.3]] )
* Greater emphasis on participatory governance and co-production of knowledge in adaptation decision making ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.2|Section 14.6.2.2]] )
* Enhanced use of risk-based decision analysis frameworks and flexible adaptation pathways ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.2|Section 14.6.2.2]] )
* Coordination of policies to support transformational adaptation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.2|Section 14.6.2.2]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Indigenous knowledge-based land and resource management ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.4|Section 14.4.4]] )
* Adaptive co-management of agriculture and freshwater resources ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.4|Section 14.4.3]] )
* Ecosystem-based management and nature-based solutions (Box 14.3, Sections 14.4.2, 14.4.3, 14.4.4, Table 14.9)
* Increased efficiency and equity of water management and allocation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.4|Section 14.4.3.3]] )
* Energy conservation measures ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.1|Section 14.6.1.3]] )
* Guidelines, codes, standards and specifications for infrastructure ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.1|Section 14.6.1.6]] )
* Modifying zoning and buying properties in floodplains ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.1|Section 14.6.1.3]] )
* Web-based tools for visualising and exploring climate information scenario planning and risk analyses ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.1|Section 14.6.1.6]] )

| rowspan="4"| * (S+) post-fire ecosystem recovery measures, restoration of habitat connectivity, and managing for carbon storage enhance adaptation potential and offers co-benefits with carbon mitigation (Box 14.1)
* (T) REDD+ represents a trade-off between carbon mitigation and the ability of communities to improve their food security ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.4|Section 14.4.7]] )
* (T) new coastal and alpine developments generate economic activity but enhance local social inequalities ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.4|Section 15.4.1]] 0)

|-
| GINI

| 40.0

(33.3–45.4)

|-
| FRAGILITY

| 45.4

(21.7–69.9)

|-
| CO 2 /PC

| 11.9

(3.8–16.6)

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Small Islands'''

| PPAHDI

| 0.68

(0.51–0.76)

| rowspan="4"| * High dependence of economic activity on tourism ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.3.4.5|Section 15.3.4.5]] )
* Lack of coordination among government departments ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.1|Section 15.6.1]] )
* Limited regional cooperation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.1|Section 15.6.1]] )
* Absence of planning frameworks ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.1|Section 15.6.1]] )
* Corruption and corrupt people in political and public life ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.1|Section 15.6.1]] )
* Insufficient human capital ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.1|Section 15.6.1]] )
* Competing development priorities ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.5|Section 15.5.5]] )
* Lack of education and awareness around climate change ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.4|Section 15.6.4]] )
* Failure of externally driven adaptation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.5|Section 15.6.5]] )
* Constraints on economic, legislative and technical capacity of local governments ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.7|Section 15.7]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Increasing women’s access to climate change funding and support from organisations ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.5|Section 15.6.5]] ) promoting agroecology, food sovereignty and regenerative economies ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.7|Section 15.7]] )
* Expanding sustainable tourism economies ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.7|Section 15.7]] )
* Integrating climate change and disaster management with broader development planning and implementation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.7|Section 15.7]] )
* Using climate risk insurance as a way to support development and adaptation processes ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.7|Section 15.7]] )
* Improving cross sectoral and cross agency coordination ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.7|Section 15.7]] )
* Enhanced integration between development assistance, public financial management, and climate finance ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.7|Section 15.5.7]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Raising dwellings and other infrastructure ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.2|Section 15.5.2]] )
* Land reclamation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.2|Section 15.5.2]] )
* Migration and planned resettlement ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.2|Section 15.5.2]] )
* Ecosystem-based adaptation including Indigenous and local knowledge ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.2|Section 15.5.2]] )
* protected areas ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.2|Section 15.5.2]] )
* Ecosystem restoration and improved agroforestry practices (Sections 15.5.2, 15.5.4)
* Community-based adaptation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.5|Section 15.5.5]] )
* Livelihood diversification and use of improved technologies and equipment ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.6|Section 15.5.6]] )
* Diversifying cropping patterns, expanding or prioritising other cash crops ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.6|Section 15.5.6]] )
* Small-scale livestock husbandry (15.5.6)
* Irrigation technologies ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.6|Section 15.5.6]] )
* Diversification away from coastal tourism
* Disaster risk management (DRM) ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.7|Section 15.5.7]] )
* Early warning systems and climate services ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.7|Section 15.5.7]] )

| rowspan="4"| * (S+) development decisions and outcomes are strengthened by consideration of climate and disaster risk ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.7|Section 15.7]] )
* (S-) impacts of invasive alien species on islands are projected to increase with time due to synergies between climate change and other drivers ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.3.3|Section 15.3.3]] )
* (S-) synergies between changing climate and other natural and anthropogenic stressors could lead to disproportionate impacts on biodiversity ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.3.3|Section 15.3.3]] )

|-
| GINI

| 40.2

(28.7–56.3)

|-
| FRAGILITY

| 64.6

(38.1–97.5)

|-
| CO 2 /PC

| 3.7

(0.3–31.3)

|}

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