Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-16 (section)

==== 16.4.2.3 Livelihoods in Africa ====

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For livelihoods dependent on small-scale rain-fed agriculture in Africa, climate hazards include floods and droughts. However, governance, financial and information/awareness/technology challenges are identified as the most significant constraints leading to soft limits, followed by social and human capacity constraints ( [[#Thomas--2021|Thomas et al., 2021]] ). Finance and land tenure constraints restrict Ghanaian farmers when considering adaptation responses due to climate variability ( [[#Guodaar--2017|Guodaar et al., 2017]] ). Similarly, in East Africa, farmers with small pieces of land have limited economic profitability, making it difficult to invest in drought and/or flood management measures ( [[#Gbegbelegbe--2018|Gbegbelegbe et al., 2018]] ).

Increasing droughts and floods require costlier adaptation responses to reduce risks, such as using drought-tolerant species ( [[#Berhanu--2015|Berhanu and Beyene, 2015]] ) and coping strategies for flood-prone households ( [[#Schaer--2015|Schaer, 2015]] ; [[#Musyoki--2016|Musyoki et al., 2016]] ), resulting in soft limits for poorer households who cannot afford these responses. In Namibia, weak governance and poor integration of information, such as disregarding knowledge of urban and rural residents in flood management strategies, has resulted in soft limits to adaptation, leading to temporary or permanent relocation of communities ( [[#Hooli--2016|Hooli, 2016]] ). Shortage of land—namely high population pressure and small per capita land holding—leads to continuous cultivation and results in poor soil fertility. This low productivity is further aggravated by erratic rainfall causing soft limits as farmers cannot produce enough and must depend on food aid ( [[#Asfaw--2019|Asfaw et al., 2019]] ).

Relocation due to flooding is discussed as a transformation adaptation action taken in Botswana where the government decided to permanently relocate hundreds of residents to a nearby dryland area ( [[#Shinn--2014|Shinn et al., 2014]] ). Some residents permanently relocated, whereas others only temporarily relocated against the government’s instructions. Such relocation processes must attend to micro-politics and risks of existing systemic issues of inequality and vulnerability.

In terms of hard limits, land scarcity poses a hard limit when implementing organic cotton production, an adaptation response supporting sustainable livelihoods ( [[#Kloos--2014|Kloos and Renaud, 2014]] ).

Residual risks associated with livelihoods in Africa include poorer households becoming trapped in cycles of poverty ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.9.3|Section 9.9.3]] ), increased rates of rural–urban migration ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.8.4|Section 9.8.4]] ), decline of traditional livelihoods such as in agriculture (Sections 9.9.3, 9.11.3.1) and fisheries ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.11.1.2|Section 9.11.1.2]] ), and loss of traditional practices and cultural heritage ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.9.2|Section 9.9.2]] ).

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