Editing IPCC:AR6/SRCCL/Chapter-5 (section)

=== 5.3.6 Tools and finance ===

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==== 5.3.6.1 Early warning systems ====

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Many countries and regions in the world have adopted early warning systems (EWS) to cope with climate variability and change as it helps to reduce interruptions and improve response times before and after extreme weather events (Ibrahim and Kruczkiewicz 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r660|660]]</sup> ). The Early Warning and Early Action (EW/EA) framework has been implemented in West Africa (Red Cross 2011) and Mozambique (DKNC 2012 <sup>[[#fn:r661|661]]</sup> ). Bangladesh has constructed cyclone shelters where cyclone warnings are disseminated and responses organised (Mallick et al. 2013 <sup>[[#fn:r662|662]]</sup> ). In Benin, a Standard Operating Procedure is used to issue early warnings through the UNDP Climate Information and Early Warning Systems Project (UNDP 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r663|663]]</sup> ).

However, there are some barriers to building effective early warning systems in Africa, such as lack of reliable data and distribution systems, lack of credibility, and limited relationships with media and government agencies (UNDP 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r664|664]]</sup> ). Mainstreaming early warning systems in adaptation planning could present a significant opportunity for climate disaster risk reduction (Zia and Wagner 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r665|665]]</sup> ). Enenkel et al. (2015) suggested that the use of smartphone applications that concentrate on food and nutrition security could help with more frequent and effective monitoring of food prices, availability of fertilisers and drought-resistant seeds, and could help to turn data streams into useful information for decision support and resilience building.

GIS and remote sensing technology are used for monitoring and risk quantification for broad-spectrum stresses such as drought, heat, cold, salinity, flooding, and pests (Skakun et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r666|666]]</sup> ; Senay et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r667|667]]</sup> ; Hossain et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r668|668]]</sup> and; Brown 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r669|669]]</sup> ), while site-specific applications, such as drones, for nutrient management, precision fertilisers, and residue management can help devise context-specific adaptations (Campbell et al. 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r670|670]]</sup> and; Baker et al. 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r671|671]]</sup> ). Systematic monitoring and remote sensing options, as argued by Aghakouchak et al. (2015) <sup>[[#fn:r672|672]]</sup> , showed that satellite observations provide opportunities to improve early drought warning. Waldner et al. (2015) <sup>[[#fn:r673|673]]</sup> found that cropland mapping allows strategic food and nutrition security monitoring and climate modelling.

Access to a wide range of adaptation technologies for precipitation change is important, such as rainwater harvesting, wastewater treatment, stormwater management and bioswales, water demand reduction, water-use efficiency, water recycling and reuse, aquifer recharge, inter-basin water transfer, desalination, and surface-water storage (ADB 2014 <sup>[[#fn:r674|674]]</sup> ).

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==== 5.3.6.2 Financial resources ====

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Financial instruments such as micro-insurance, index-based insurance, provision of post-disaster finances for recovery and pre-disaster payment are fundamental means to reduce lower and medium level risks (Linnerooth-Bayer and Hochrainer-Stigler 2014 <sup>[[#fn:r675|675]]</sup> ). Fenton &amp; Paavola, 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r676|676]]</sup> ; Dowla, 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r677|677]]</sup> ). Hammill et al. (2010) <sup>[[#fn:r678|678]]</sup> found that microfinance services (MFS) are especially helpful for the poor. MFS can provide poor people with the means to diversify, accumulate and manage the assets needed to become less susceptible to shocks and stresses. As a result, MFS plays an important role in vulnerability reduction and climate change adaptation among some of the poor. The provision of small-scale financial products to low-income and otherwise disadvantaged groups by financial institutions can serve as adaptation to climate change. Access to finance in the context of climate change adaptation that focuses on poor households and women in particular is bringing encouraging results (Agrawala and Carraro 2010 <sup>[[#fn:r679|679]]</sup> ).

In summary, effective adaptation strategies can reduce the negative impacts of climate change. Food security under changing climate conditions depends on adaptation throughout the entire food system – production, supply chain, and consumption/demand, as well as reduction of food loss and waste. Adaptation can be autonomous, incremental, or transformative, and can reduce vulnerability and enhance resilience. Local food systems are embedded in culture, beliefs and values, and ILK can contribute to enhancing food system resilience to climate change (high confidence). Institutional and capacity-building measures are needed to scale up adaptation measures across local, national, regional, and global scales.

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