Editing IPCC:AR6/WGIII/Chapter-9 (section)

=== 9.8.1 Overview of Contribution of Mitigation Options to Sustainable Development ===

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A growing body of research acknowledges that mitigation actions in buildings may have substantial social and economic value beyond their direct impact of reducing energy consumption and/or GHG emissions ( [[#IEA--2014|IEA 2014]] ; [[#Ürge-Vorsatz--2016|Ürge-Vorsatz et al. 2016]] ; [[#Deng--2017|Deng et al. 2017]] ; [[#Reuter--2017|Reuter et al. 2017]] ; [[#US%20EPA--2018|US EPA 2018]] ; [[#Kamal--2019|Kamal et al. 2019]] ; [[#Bleyl--2019|Bleyl et al. 2019]] ) (see also Cross-Chapter Box 6 in Chapter 7). In other words, the implementation of these actions in the residential and non-residential sector holds numerous multiple impacts (co-benefits, adverse side-effects, trade-offs, risks, etc.) for the economy, society and end-users, in both developed and developing economies, which can be categorised into the following types ( [[#IEA--2014|IEA 2014]] ; [[#Ürge-Vorsatz--2016|Ürge-Vorsatz et al. 2016]] ; [[#Ferreira--2017|Ferreira et al. 2017]] ; [[#Thema--2017|Thema et al. 2017]] ; [[#Reuter--2017|Reuter et al. 2017]] ; [[#US%20EPA--2018|US EPA 2018]] ; [[#Nikas--2020|Nikas et al. 2020]] ): (i) health impacts due to better indoor conditions, energy/fuel poverty alleviation, better ambient air quality and reduction of the heat island effect; (ii) environmental benefits such as reduced local air pollution and the associated impact on ecosystems (acidification, eutrophication, etc.) and infrastructures, reduced sewage production, and so on; (iii) improved resource management including water and energy; (iv) impact on social well-being, including changes in disposable income due to decreased energy expenditures and/or distributional costs of new policies, fuel poverty alleviation and improved access to energy sources, rebound effects, increased productive time for women and children, and so on; (v) microeconomic effects (e.g., productivity gains in non-residential buildings, enhanced asset values of green buildings, fostering innovation); (vi) macroeconomic effects, including impact on GDP driven by energy savings and energy availability, creation of new jobs, decreased employment in the fossil energy sector, long-term reductions in energy prices and possible increases in electricity prices in the medium run, possible impacts on public budgets, and so on; and (vii) energy security implications (e.g., access to modern energy resources, reduced import dependency, increase of supplier diversity, smaller reserve requirements, increased sovereignty and resilience).

Well-designed and effectively implemented mitigation actions in the sector of buildings have significant potential for achieving the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Specifically, the multiple impacts of mitigation policies and measures go far beyond the goal of climate action (SDG 13) and contribute to further activating a great variety of other SDGs (Figure 9.18 presents some indicative examples). Table 9.5 reviews and updates the analysis carried out in the context of the IPCC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C (SR1.5) ( [[#Roy--2018|Roy et al. 2018]] ) demonstrating that the main categories of GHG emission reduction interventions in buildings, namely the implementation of energy sufficiency and efficiency improvements as well as improved access and fuel switch to modern low carbon energy, contribute to achieving 16 out of a total of 17 SDGs.

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'''Figure 9.18 | Contribution of mitigation policies of the building sector to meeting sustainable development goals.''' Source: based on information from IEA(2019d); [[#IEA--2020b|IEA (2020b)]] ; [[#Mills--2016|Mills (2016)]] ; [[#European%20Commission--2016|European Commission (2016)]] ; [[#Rafaj--2018|Rafaj et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Mzavanadze--2018a|Mzavanadze (2018a)]] ; [[#World%20Health%20Organization--2016|World Health Organization (2016)]] ; and literature review presented in [[#9.8.5.2|Section 9.8.5.2]] .

A review of a relatively limited number of studies made by [[#Ürge-Vorsatz--2016|Ürge-Vorsatz et al. (2016)]] and [[#Payne--2015|Payne et al. (2015)]] showed that the size of multiple benefits of mitigation actions in the sector of buildings may range from 22% up to 7400% of the corresponding energy cost savings. In 7 out of 11 case studies reviewed, the value of the multiple impacts of mitigation actions was equal or greater than the value of energy savings. Even in these studies, several effects have not been measured and consequently the size of multiple benefits of mitigation actions may be even higher. Quantifying and if possible, monetising, these wider impacts of climate action would facilitate their inclusion in cost-benefit analysis, strengthen the adoption of ambitious emissions reduction targets, and improve coordination across policy areas reducing costs ( [[#Smith--2016|Smith et al. 2016]] ; [[#Thema--2017|Thema et al. 2017]] ).

'''Table 9.5 | Aspects ofmitigation actions in buildings and their contributions to the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals.''' S: enhancement of energy sufficiency; E: energy efficiency improvements; R: improved access and fuel switch to lower carbon and renewable energy.

[[File:740519b34f4932e6a3ccd0f9e96344f7 IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Table_9_5.png]]
Where:

'''Notes''' ''':''' The strength of interaction between mitigation actions and SDGs is described with a seven-point scale (Nilsson et al., 2016). Also, the blue bullet shows the interactions between co-benefits/risk associated with mitigation actions and the SDGs. '''SDG 1''' : Sufficiency and efficiency measures result in reduced energy expenditures and other financial savings that further lead to poverty reduction. Access to modern energy forms will largely help alleviate poverty in developing countries as the productive time of women and children will increase, new activities can be developed, and so on. The distributional costs of some mitigation policies promoting energy efficiency and lower carbon energy may reduce the disposable income of the poor. '''SDG 2''' : Energy sufficiency and efficiency measures result in lower energy bills and avoiding the ‘heat or eat’ dilemma. Improved cook-stoves provide better food security and reduces the danger of fuel shortages in developing countries; under real-world conditions these impacts may be limited as the households use these stoves irregularly and inappropriately. Green roofs can support food production. Improving energy access enhances agricultural productivity and improves food security; on the other hand, increased bioenergy production may restrict the available land for food production. '''SDG 3''' : All categories of mitigation action result in health benefits through better indoor air quality, energy/fuel poverty alleviation, better ambient air quality, and reduction of the heat island effect. Efficiency measures with inadequate ventilation may lead to the “sick building” syndrome symptoms. '''SDG 4''' : Energy efficiency measures result in reduced school absenteeism due to better indoor environmental conditions. Also, fuel poverty alleviation increases the available space at home for reading. Improved access to electricity and clean fuels enables people living in poor developing countries to read, while it is also associated with greater school attendance by children. '''SDG 5''' : Efficient cook-stoves and improved access to electricity and clean fuels in developing countries will result in substantial time savings for women and children, thus increasing the time for rest, communication, education and productive activities. '''SDG 6''' : Reduced energy demand due to sufficiency and efficiency measures as well as an upscaling of renewable energy sources (RES) can lead to reduced water demand for thermal cooling at energy production facilities. Also, water savings result through improved conditions and lower space of dwellings. Improved access to electricity is necessary to treat water at homes. In some situations, the switch to bioenergy could increase water use compared to existing conditions. '''SDG 7''' : All categories of mitigation action result in energy/fuel poverty alleviation in both developed and developing countries as well as in improving the security of energy supply. '''SDG 8''' : Positive and negative direct and indirect macroeconomic effects (GDP, employment, public budgets) associated with lower energy prices due to the reduced energy demand, energy efficiency and RES investments, improved energy access and fostering innovation. Also, energy efficient buildings with adequate ventilation, result in productivity gains and improve the competitiveness of the economy. '''SDG 9''' : Adoption of distributed generation and smart grids helps in infrastructure improvement and expansion. Also, the development of ‘green buildings’ can foster innovation. Reduced energy demand due to sufficiency and efficiency measures as well as an upscaling of RES can lead to early retirement of fossil energy infrastructure. '''SDG 10''' : Efficient cook-stoves as well as improved access to electricity and clean fuels in developing countries will result in substantial time savings for women and children, thus enhancing education and the development of productive activities. Sufficiency and efficiency measures lead to lower energy expenditures, thus reducing income inequalities. The distributional costs of some mitigation policies promoting energy efficiency and lower carbon energy as well as the need for purchasing more expensive equipment and appliances may reduce the disposable income of the poor and increase inequalities. '''SDG 11''' : Sufficiency and efficiency measures as well as fuel switching to RES and improvements in energy access would eliminate major sources (both direct and indirect) of poor air quality (indoor and outdoor). Helpful if in-situ production of RES combined with charging electric two, three and four wheelers at home. Buildings with high energy efficiency and/or green features are sold/rented at higher prices than conventional, low energy efficient houses. '''SDG 12''' : Energy sufficiency and efficiency measures as well as deployment of RES result in reduced consumption of natural resources, namely fossil fuels, metal ores, minerals, water, and so on. Negative impacts on natural resources could be arisen from increased penetration of new efficient appliances and equipment. '''SDG 13''' : See Sections 9.4–9.6. '''SDG 15''' : Efficient cookstoves and improved access to electricity and clean fuels in developing countries will result in halting deforestation. '''SDG 16''' : Building retrofits are associated with lower crime. Improved access to electric lighting can improve safety (particularly for women and children). Institutions that are effective, accountable and transparent are needed at all levels of government for providing energy access and promoting modern renewables as well as boosting sufficiency and efficiency. '''SDG 17''' : The development of zero energy buildings requires among others capacity building, citizen participation as well as monitoring of the achievements.

'''Sources:''' [[#Brounen--2011|Brounen and Kok (2011)]] ; [[#Deng--2012|Deng et al. (2012)]] ; [[#Zheng--2012|Zheng et al. (2012)]] ; [[#Högberg--2013|Högberg (2013)]] ; [[#Hyland--2013|Hyland et al. (2013)]] ; [[#Kahn--2014|Kahn and Kok (2014)]] ; [[#Koirala--2014|Koirala et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Maidment--2014|Maidment et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Mirasgedis--2014|Mirasgedis et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Scott--2014|Scott et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Bailis--2015|Bailis et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Boermans--2015|Boermans et al. (2015)]] ; Fuerst et al. (2015, 2016); [[#Galán-Marín--2015|Galán-Marín et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Hasegawa--2015|Hasegawa et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Hejazi--2015|Hejazi et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Holland--2015|Holland et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Liddell--2015|Liddell and Guiney (2015)]] ; [[#Liu--2015a|Liu et al. (2015a)]] ; [[#Mattioli--2015|Mattioli and Moulinos (2015)]] ; [[#Payne--2015|Payne et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Torero--2015|Torero (2015)]] ; Willand et al. (2015a); [[#Winter--2015|Winter et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Baimel--2016|Baimel et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Camarinha-Matos--2016|Camarinha-Matos (2016)]] ; [[#Cameron--2016|Cameron et al. (2016)]] ; [[#De%20Ayala--2016|De Ayala et al. (2016)]] ; [[#European%20Commission--2016|European Commission (2016)]] ; [[#Fricko--2016|Fricko et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Hanna--2016|Hanna et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Jensen--2016|Jensen et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Levy--2016|Levy et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Markovska--2016|Markovska et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Rao--2016|Rao et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Smith--2016|Smith et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Sola--2016|Sola et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Song--2016|Song et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Ürge-Vorsatz--2016|Ürge-Vorsatz et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Balaban--2017|Balaban and Puppim de Oliveira (2017)]] ; [[#Berrueta--2017|Berrueta et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Burney--2017|Burney et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Mehetre--2017|Mehetre et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Mofidi--2017|Mofidi and Akbari (2017)]] ; [[#Niemelä--2017|Niemelä et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Ortiz--2017|Ortiz et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Rao--2017|Rao and Pachauri (2017)]] ; [[#Thema--2017|Thema et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Thomson--2017a|Thomson et al. (2017a)]] ; [[#Zhao--2017|Zhao et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Barnes--2018|Barnes and Samad (2018)]] ; [[#Cedeño-Laurent--2018|Cedeño-Laurent et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Goldemberg--2018|Goldemberg et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Grubler--2018|Grubler et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Jeuland--2018|Jeuland et al. (2018)]] ; [[#MacNaughton--2018|MacNaughton et al. (2018)]] ; [[#McCollum--2018|McCollum et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Mzavanadze--2018a|Mzavanadze (2018a)]] ; [[#Rosenthal--2018|Rosenthal et al. (2018)]] ; Saheb et al. (2018b,a); [[#Steenland--2018|Steenland et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Tajani--2018|Tajani et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Venugopal--2018|Venugopal et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Walters--2018|Walters and Midden (2018)]] ; [[#Wierzbicka--2018|Wierzbicka et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Alawneh--2019|Alawneh et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Batchelor--2019|Batchelor et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Bleyl--2019|Bleyl et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Cajias--2019|Cajias et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Marmolejo-Duarte--2019|Marmolejo-Duarte and Chen (2019)]] ; [[#Mastrucci--2019|Mastrucci et al. (2019)]] ; ESMAP et al. (2020); [[#Teubler--2020|Teubler et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Van%20de%20Ven--2020|Van de Ven et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Nikas--2020|Nikas et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Blair--2021|Blair et al. (2021)]] .

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