Editing IPCC:AR6/WGIII/Chapter-9 (section)

==== 9.8.2.1 Lack of Access to Clean Energy ====

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In 2018, approximately 2.8 billion people worldwide, most of whom live in Asia and Africa, still use polluting fuels, such as fuelwood, charcoal, dried crops, cow dung, and so on, in low-efficiency stoves for cooking and heating, generating household air pollution (HAP), which adversely affects the health of the occupants of the dwellings, especially children and women ( [[#World%20Health%20Organization--2016|World Health Organization 2016]] ; [[#Rahut--2017|Rahut et al. 2017]] ; [[#Mehetre--2017|Mehetre et al. 2017]] ; [[#Das--2018|Das et al. 2018]] ; Liu et al. 2018; [[#Quinn--2018|Quinn et al. 2018]] ; [[#Rosenthal--2018|Rosenthal et al. 2018]] ; [[#Xin--2018|Xin et al. 2018]] ; [[#IEA--2020a|IEA 2020a]] ). Exposure to HAP from burning these fuels is estimated to have caused 3.8 million deaths from heart diseases, strokes, cancers, acute lower respiratory infections in 2016 (World Health Organization 2018). It is acknowledged that integrated policies are needed to address simultaneously universal energy access, limiting climate change and reducing air pollution ( [[#World%20Health%20Organization--2016|World Health Organization 2016]] ). [[#Rafaj--2018|Rafaj et al. (2018)]] showed that a scenario achieving these SDGs in 2030 will imply in 2040 two million fewer premature deaths from HAP compared to current levels, and 1.5 million fewer premature deaths in relation to a reference scenario, which assumes the continuation of existing and planned policies. The level of incremental investment needed in developing countries to achieve universal access to modern energy was estimated at around USD0.8 trillion cumulatively to 2040 in the scenarios examined ( [[#Rafaj--2018|Rafaj et al. 2018]] ).

At the core of these policies is the promotion of improved cook-stoves and other modern energy-efficient appliances to cook (for the health benefits of improved cook-stoves see for example ( [[#García-Frapolli--2010|García-Frapolli et al. 2010]] ; [[#Malla--2011|Malla et al. 2011]] ; [[#Aunan--2013|Aunan et al. 2013]] ; [[#Jeuland--2018|Jeuland et al. 2018]] ), as well as the use of non-solid fuels by poor households in developing countries (Figure 9.19). Most studies agree that the use of non-solid energy options such as LPG, ethanol, biogas, piped natural gas, and electricity is more effective in reducing the health impacts of HAP compared to improved biomass stoves (see for example [[#Larsen--2016|Larsen 2016]] ; [[#Rosenthal--2018|Rosenthal et al. 2018]] ; [[#Steenland--2018|Steenland et al. 2018]] ; [[#Goldemberg--2018|Goldemberg et al. 2018]] ). On the other hand, climate change mitigation policies (e.g., carbon pricing) may increase the costs of some of these clean fuels (e.g., LPG, electricity), slowing down their penetration in the poor segment of the population and restricting the associated health benefits ( [[#Cameron--2016|Cameron et al. 2016]] ). In this case, appropriate access policies should be designed to efficiently shield poor households from the burden of carbon taxation ( [[#Cameron--2016|Cameron et al. 2016]] ). The evaluation of the improved biomass burning cook-stoves under real-world conditions has shown that they have lower than expected, and in many cases limited, long-run health and environmental impacts, as the households use these stoves irregularly and inappropriately, fail to maintain them, and their usage decline over time ( [[#Patange--2015|Patange et al. 2015]] ; [[#Aung--2016|Aung et al. 2016]] ; [[#Hanna--2016|Hanna et al. 2016]] ; [[#Wathore--2017|Wathore et al. 2017]] ). In this context, the various improved cook-stoves programs should consider the mid- and long-term needs of maintenance, repair, or replacement to support their sustained use ( [[#Shankar--2014|Shankar et al. 2014]] ; [[#Schilmann--2019|Schilmann et al. 2019]] ).

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[[File:c44c1109ef2fbb4a3f7327be7d94336b IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Figure_9_19.png]]

'''Figure 9.19 | Trends on energy access: historical based on IEA statistics data and scenarios based on IEA WEO data.'''

Electrification of households in rural or remote areas results also to significant health benefits. For example, in El Salvador, rural electrification of households leads to reduced overnight air pollutants concentration by 63% due to the substitution of kerosene as a lighting source, and 34–44% less acute respiratory infections among children under six ( [[#Torero--2015|Torero 2015]] ). In addition, the connection of the health centres to the grid leads to improvements in the quality of health care provided ( [[#Lenz--2017|Lenz et al. 2017]] ).

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