Editing IPCC:AR6/SRCCL/Chapter-3 (section)

==== 3.7.1.3 Combating wind erosion and deflation in Turkey: The greening desert of Karapınar ====

<div id="section-3-7-1-3-combating-wind-erosion-and-deflation-in-turkey-the-greening-desert-of-karapinar-block-1"></div>

In Turkey, the amount of sediment recently released through erosion into seas was estimated to be 168 Mt yr <sup>-1</sup> , which is considerably lower than the 500 Mt yr <sup>–1</sup> that was estimated to be lost in the 1970s. The decrease in erosion rates is attributed to an increase in spatial extent of forests, rehabilitation of degraded forests, erosion control, prevention of overgrazing, and improvement in irrigation technologies. Soil conservation measures conducted in the Karapınar district, Turkey, exemplify these activities. The district is characterised by a semi-arid climate and annual average precipitation of 250–300 mm (Türkeş 2003 <sup>[[#fn:r1513|1513]]</sup> ; Türkeş and Tatlı 2011 <sup>[[#fn:r1514|1514]]</sup> ). In areas where vegetation was overgrazed or inappropriately tilled, the surface soil horizon was removed through erosion processes resulting in the creation of large drifting dunes that threatened settlements around Karapınar (Groneman 1968 <sup>[[#fn:r1515|1515]]</sup> ). Such dune movement had begun to affect the Karapınar settlement in 1956 (Kantarcı et al. 2011 <sup>[[#fn:r1516|1516]]</sup> ). Consequently, by the early 1960s, Karapınar town and nearby villages were confronted with the danger of abandonment due to out-migration in the early 1960s (Figure 3.11(1)). The reasons for increasing wind erosion in the Karapınar district can be summarised as follows: sandy material was mobilised following drying of the lake; hot and semi-arid climate conditions; overgrazing and use of pasture plants for fuel; excessive tillage; and strong prevailing winds.

<div id="section-3-7-1-3-combating-wind-erosion-and-deflation-in-turkey-the-greening-desert-of-karapinar-block-2"></div>

<span id="figure-3.11a"></span>
<!-- START IMG -->
<!-- IMG TITLE -->
'''Figure 3.11a'''

<span id="a-general-view-of-a-nearby-village-of-karapınar-town-in-the-early-1960s-çarkaci-1999."></span>
<!-- IMG CAPTION -->
'''(1) A general view of a nearby village of Karapınar town in the early 1960s (Çarkaci 1999).'''
<!-- IMG FILE -->
[[File:94b8ddda39bc1f5c6cec209097079501 Figure-3.11a.png]]

(1) A general view of a nearby village of Karapınar town in the early 1960s (Çarkaci 1999) <sup>[[#fn:r1802|1802]]</sup> .

<!-- END IMG -->
<div id="section-3-7-1-3-combating-wind-erosion-and-deflation-in-turkey-the-greening-desert-of-karapinar-block-3"></div>

<span id="figure-3.11b"></span>
<!-- START IMG -->
<!-- IMG TITLE -->
'''Figure 3.11b'''

<span id="a-view-of-the-karapınar-wind-erosion-area-in-2013-photo-murat-türkeş-17-june-2019."></span>
<!-- IMG CAPTION -->
'''(2)A view of the Karapınar wind erosion area in 2013 (Photo: Murat Türkeş, 17 June 2019).'''
<!-- IMG FILE -->
[[File:332259ecd3c1f439336fa3143309524a Figure-3.11b-1024x683.jpg]]

(2)A view of the Karapınar wind erosion area in 2013 (Photo: Murat Türkeş <sup>[[#fn:r1803|1803]]</sup> , 17 June 2019).

<!-- END IMG -->
<div id="section-3-7-1-3-combating-wind-erosion-and-deflation-in-turkey-the-greening-desert-of-karapinar-block-4"></div>

<span id="figure-3.11c"></span>
<!-- START IMG -->
<!-- IMG TITLE -->
'''Figure 3.11c'''

<span id="construction-of-cane-screens-in-the-early-1960s-in-order-to-decrease-wind-speed-and-prevent-movement-of-the-sand-accumulations-and-dunes-this-was-one-of-the-physical-measures-during-the-prevention-and-mitigation-period-çarkaci-1999."></span>
<!-- IMG CAPTION -->
'''(3) Construction of cane screens in the early 1960s in order to decrease wind speed and prevent movement of the sand accumulations and dunes; this was one of the physical measures during the prevention and mitigation period (Çarkaci 1999).'''

<!-- IMG FILE -->
[[File:ef030280cb1db9bd660d1c4f6d826f54 Figure-3.11c.png]]

(3) Construction of cane screens in the early 1960s in order to decrease wind speed and prevent movement of the sand accumulations and dunes; this was one of the physical measures during the prevention and mitigation period (Çarkaci 1999 <sup>[[#fn:r1804|1804]]</sup> ).

<!-- END IMG -->
<div id="section-3-7-1-3-combating-wind-erosion-and-deflation-in-turkey-the-greening-desert-of-karapinar-block-5"></div>

<span id="figure-3.11d"></span>
<!-- START IMG -->
<!-- IMG TITLE -->
'''Figure 3.11d'''

<span id="a-view-of-mixed-vegetation-which-now-covers-most-of-the-karapınar-wind-erosion-area-in-2013-the-main-tree-species-of-which-were-selected-for-afforestation-with-respect-to-their-resistance-to-the-arid-continental-climate-conditions-along-with-a-warmhot-temperature-regime-over-the-district-photo-murat-türkeş-17-june-2013."></span>
<!-- IMG CAPTION -->
'''(4) A view of mixed vegetation, which now covers most of the Karapınar wind erosion area in 2013, the main tree species of which were selected for afforestation with respect to their resistance to the arid continental climate conditions along with a warm/hot temperature regime over the district (Photo: Murat Türkeş, 17 June 2013).'''
<!-- IMG FILE -->
[[File:4bca06773595a7299c60fb68e7be04f5 Figure-3.11d.png]]

(4) A view of mixed vegetation, which now covers most of the Karapınar wind erosion area in 2013, the main tree species of which were selected for afforestation with respect to their resistance to the arid continental climate conditions along with a warm/hot temperature regime over the district (Photo: Murat Türkeş <sup>[[#fn:r1805|1805]]</sup> , 17 June 2013).

<!-- END IMG -->
<div id="section-3-7-1-3-combating-wind-erosion-and-deflation-in-turkey-the-greening-desert-of-karapinar-block-6"></div>

Restoration and mitigation strategies were initiated in 1959, and today 4300 ha of land have been restored (Akay and Yildirim 2010 <sup>[[#fn:r1517|1517]]</sup> ) (Figure 3.11 (2)), using specific measures: (i) physical measures: construction of cane screens to decrease wind speed and prevent sand movement (Figure 3.11(3)); (ii) restoration of cover: increasing grass cover between screens using seeds collected from local pastures or the cultivation of rye ( ''Secale'' sp.) and wheat grass ( ''Agropyron elongatum'' ) that are known to grow in arid and hot conditions; and (iii) afforestation: saplings obtained from nursery gardens were planted and grown between these screens. Main tree species selected were oleaster ( ''Eleagnus'' sp.), acacia ( ''Robinia pseudeaccacia'' ), ash ( ''Fraxinus'' sp.), elm ( ''Ulmus'' sp.) and maple (Acer sp.) (Figure 3.11 (4)). Economic growth occurred after controlling erosion and new tree nurseries have been established with modern irrigation. Potential negative consequences through the excessive use of water can be mitigated through engagement with local stakeholders and transdisciplinary learning processes, as well as by restoring the traditional land uses in the semi-arid Konya closed basin (Akça et al. 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r1518|1518]]</sup> ).

<div id="section-3-7-1-4-soil-erosion-in-central-asia-under-changing-climate"></div>

<span id="soil-erosion-in-central-asia-under-changing-climate"></span>