Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-12 (section)

==== 12.5.2.1 Adaptation Measures and Strategies Applied to Oceans and Coasts of Central and South America ====

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Similar to those strategies pointed out by WGII AR5 Chapter 27 ( [[#Magrin--2014|Magrin et al., 2014]] ) and [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3|Chapter 3]] ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.5|Section 3.5]] ; [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2|Section 3.6.2]] ; Box SLR in Chapter 3), adaptation strategies in ocean and coastal ecosystems in CSA remain focused on ecosystem protection and restoration and the sustainable use of marine resources ( ''high confidence'' ). There is ''low evidence'' on how coastal urban areas and tourist settlements of CSA countries are adapting to SLR and extreme events ( [[#Calil--2017|Calil et al., 2017]] ; [[#Villamizar--2017|Villamizar et al., 2017]] ). Some of these strategies include planned relocation ( [[#Dannenberg--2019|Dannenberg et al., 2019]] ) and the use of grey infrastructures like seawalls and bulkheads ( [[#Silva--2014|Silva et al., 2014]] ; [[#Isla--2018|Isla et al., 2018]] ).

There is ''medium confidence'' that EbA is the main strategy used in CSA coral reef ecosystems. The set of strategies applied include the protection, restoration (e.g., coral gardening, larval propagation) and conservation of coral reef areas through the application of spatial ocean zoning schemes such as marine protected areas (MPAs), marine managed areas (MMAs), national parks, wildlife refuges, special zones of marine protection, special management zones, responsible fishing areas and the establishment of management plans with some level of participatory processes. These strategies are complemented by actions that promote the development of research and education programmes, recreational and cultural activities, the use of community-based approaches and the creation of national specific laws ( [[#Graham--2017|Graham, 2017]] ) and the adherence to international treaties (e.g., Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora [CITIES], AGENDA 21, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat) ( [[#Cruz-Garcia--2015|Cruz-Garcia and Peters, 2015]] ; [[#Gopal--2015|Gopal et al., 2015]] ; [[#Graham--2017|Graham, 2017]] ; [[#Bayraktarov--2020|Bayraktarov et al., 2020]] ).

Adaptation measures in mangrove ecosystems are mainly focused on the application of EbA strategies ( ''high confidence'' ). These measures include the application of restoration programmes, the creation of management plans, which also have significant co-benefits with mitigation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2.1|Section 3.6.2.1]] ), and the establishment of coastal protected areas, followed by the development of research activities and the creation of specific mangrove policies through new laws and resolutions (e.g., Colombia) ( [[#Cvitanovic--2014|Cvitanovic et al., 2014]] ; [[#Krause--2014|Krause, 2014]] ; [[#Blanco-Libreros--2015|Blanco-Libreros and Estrada-Urrea, 2015]] ; [[#Carter--2015|Carter et al., 2015]] ; [[#Estrada--2015|Estrada et al., 2015]] ; [[#Ferreira--2016|Ferreira and Lacerda, 2016]] ; Oliveira- [[#Filho--2016|Filho et al., 2016]] ; [[#Rodríguez-Rodríguez--2016|Rodríguez-Rodríguez et al., 2016]] ; [[#Alvarado--2017|Alvarado et al., 2017]] ; [[#Álvarez-León--2017|Álvarez-León and Álvarez Puerto, 2017]] ; [[#Baptiste--2017|Baptiste et al., 2017]] ; [[#Borges--2017|Borges et al., 2017]] ; [[#Jaramillo--2018|Jaramillo et al., 2018]] ; [[#Salazar--2018|Salazar et al., 2018]] ; [[#Armenteras--2019|Armenteras et al., 2019]] ; [[#Blanco-Libreros--2019|Blanco-Libreros and Álvarez-León, 2019]] ; [[#Maretti--2019|Maretti et al., 2019]] ; [[#Ellison--2020|Ellison et al., 2020]] ).

The use of territorial planning tools, the promotion of sustainable resource exploitation, the adherence to certification schemes and the implementation of management instruments, such as ecosystem-based management (EbM), followed by the use of an integrated coastal zone management, coastal marine spatial planning and capacity building, ecological risk assessments, have been the main strategies used to ensure the sustainability of marine resources in fisheries across EEZs of CSA ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Hellebrandt--2014|Hellebrandt et al., 2014]] ; [[#Gelcich--2015|Gelcich et al., 2015]] ; [[#Singh-Renton--2015|Singh-Renton and McIvor, 2015]] ; [[#Gutiérrez--2016a|Gutiérrez et al., 2016a]] ; [[#Karlsson--2016|Karlsson and Bryceson, 2016]] ; [[#Oyanedel--2016|Oyanedel et al., 2016]] ; [[#Debels--2017|Debels et al., 2017]] ; [[#Isaac--2017|Isaac and Ferrari, 2017]] ; Mariano [[#Gutiérrez--2017|Gutiérrez et al., 2017]] ; [[#Barragán--2018|Barragán and Lazo, 2018]] ; [[#Bertrand--2018|Bertrand et al., 2018]] ; [[#Lluch-Cota--2018|Lluch-Cota et al., 2018]] ; [[#Guerrero-Gatica--2020|Guerrero-Gatica et al., 2020]] ). Other strategies include the application of local regulations (e.g., closed seasons) ( [[#Fontoura--2016|Fontoura et al., 2016]] ) and the use of participative programmes ( [[#Hellebrandt--2014|Hellebrandt et al., 2014]] ; [[#Arroyo%20Mina--2016|Arroyo Mina et al., 2016]] ; [[#Matera--2016|Matera, 2016]] ).

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