Editing IPCC:AR6/WGIII/Chapter-10 (section)

=== 10.1.3 Climate Adaptation on the Transport Sector ===

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Climate change impacts such as extremely high temperatures, intense rainfall leading to flooding, more intense winds and/or storms, and sea level rise can seriously impact transport infrastructure, operations, and mobility for road, rail, shipping, and aviation. Studies since AR5 confirm that serious challenges to all transport infrastructures are increasing, with consequent delays or derailing ( [[#Miao--2018|Miao et al. 2018]] ; [[#Moretti--2018|Moretti and Loprencipe 2018]] ; [[#Pérez-Morales--2019|Pérez-Morales et al. 2019]] ; [[#Palin--2021|Palin et al. 2021]] ). These impacts have been increasingly documented but, according to [[#Forzieri--2018|Forzieri et al. (2018)]] , little is known about the risks of multiple climate extremes on critical infrastructures at local to continental scales. All roads, bridges, rail systems, and ports are likely to be affected to some extent. Flexible pavements are particularly vulnerable to extreme high temperatures that can cause permanent deformation and crumbling of asphalt ( [[#Underwood--2017|Underwood et al. 2017]] ; [[#Qiao--2019|Qiao et al. 2019]] ). Rail systems are also vulnerable, with a variety of hazards, both meteorological and non-meteorological, affecting railway asset lifetimes. Severe impacts on railway infrastructure and operations can arise from the occurrence of temperatures below freezing, excess precipitation, storms and wildfires ( [[#Thaduri--2020|Thaduri et al. 2020]] ; [[#Palin--2021|Palin et al. 2021]] ) as can impacts on underground transport systems ( [[#Forero-Ortiz--2020|Forero-Ortiz et al. 2020]] ).

Most countries are examining opportunities for combined mitigation-adaptation efforts, using the need to mitigate climate change through transport-related GHG emissions reductions and reduction of pollutants as the basis for adaptation action ( [[#Thornbush--2013|Thornbush et al. 2013]] ; [[#Wang--2020|Wang et al. 2020]] ). For example, urban sprawl indirectly affects climate processes, increasing emissions and vulnerability, which worsens the potential to adapt ( [[#Congedo--2014|Congedo and Munafò 2014]] ; Macchi and Tiepolo 2014). Hence, using a range of forms of rapid transit as structuring elements for urban growth can mitigate climate change-related risks as well as emissions, reducing impacts on new infrastructure, often in more vulnerable areas ( [[#Newman--2017|Newman et al. 2017]] ). Such changes are increasingly seen as having economic benefit ( [[#Ha--2017|Ha et al. 2017]] ), especially in developing nations ( [[#Chang--2016|Chang 2016]] ; [[#Monioudi--2018|Monioudi et al. 2018]] ).

Since AR5 there has been a growing awareness of the potential and actual impacts from global sea level rise due to climate change on transport systems ( [[#Dawson--2016|Dawson et al. 2016]] ; [[#Rasmussen--2018|Rasmussen et al. 2018]] ; [[#IPCC--2019|IPCC 2019]] ; [[#Noland--2019|Noland et al. 2019]] ), particularly on port facilities ( [[#Stephenson--2018|Stephenson et al. 2018]] ; [[#Yang--2018b|Yang et al. 2018b]] ; [[#Pérez-Morales--2019|Pérez-Morales et al. 2019]] ). Similarly, recent studies suggest changes in global jet streams could affect the aviation sector ( [[#Staples--2018|Staples et al. 2018]] ; [[#Becken--2019|Becken and Shuker 2019]] ), and extreme weather conditions can affect runways (heat buckling) and aircraft lift. Combined, climate impacts on aviation could result in payload restrictions and disruptions ( [[#Coffel--2017|Coffel et al. 2017]] ; [[#Monioudi--2018|Monioudi et al. 2018]] ). According to [[#Williams--2017|Williams (2017)]] , studies have indicated that the amount of moderate-or-greater clear-air turbulence on transatlantic flight routes in winter will increase significantly in the future as the climate changes. More research is needed to fully understand climate-induced risks to transportation systems.

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