Editing IPCC:AR6/WGIII/Chapter-14 (section)

=== 14.6.2 Overall Assessment of International Cooperation ===

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This section provides an overall assessment of international cooperation, taking into account the combined effects of cooperation within the UNFCCC process, other global agreements, as well as regional, sectoral, and transnational processes. Recent literature consistent with the transitions framing highlights that cooperation can be particularly effective when it addresses issues on a sector-by-sector basis (Geels et al. 2019). Table 14.4 below summarises the effects of international cooperation on mitigation efforts in each of the sectoral areas covered in Chapters 5 to 12 of this report. As it indicates, there are some strong areas of sector-specific cooperation, but also some important weaknesses. Formal agreements and programmes, both multilateral and bilateral, are advancing mitigation efforts in energy, AFOLU, and transportation, while transnational networks and partnerships are addressing issues in urban systems, industry, and buildings. Although many of the concerns relevant for buildings may be embedded in the energy sector with respect to their operation, and the industrial sector with respect to their materials, reinforcing the networks with more formal agreements could be vital to putting these sectors on a pathway to net zero GHG or CO 2 emissions. Several of the sectors have very little formal cooperation at the international level, and a common theme across many of them is a need for increased financial flows to achieve particular objectives.

Table 14.5 provides examples of mechanisms addressing each of the assessment criteria identified in [[#14.2.3|Section 14.2.3]] . The effects of different forms of international cooperation are separated out, including not only UNFCCC and other multilateral processes, but also sub-global and sectoral agreements. Several points stand out. First, the Paris Agreement has the potential to significantly advance the UN climate regime’s transformative potential. Second, the international market mechanisms under Article 6 – should an agreement on implementation deals be reached – allow a shift from projects and programmes to policy-based and sectoral generation of emissions credits. Moreover, the sectoral agreement CORSIA also makes use of such credits. Third, there is a lack of attention to both distributive outcomes and institutional support within sectoral agreements, representing a serious gap in efforts to harmonise mitigation with equity and sustainable development. Fourth, there are transnational partnerships and initiatives, representing the actions of non-state actors, addressing each of the assessment criteria, with the exception of economic effectiveness.

'''Table 14.4 | Effects of international cooperation on sectoral mitigation efforts.'''

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Sector

! Key strengths

! Key gaps and weaknesses

|-
| Demand, services, social aspects

| Adoption of SDGs addressing social inequities and sustainable development in the context of mitigation

| Little international attention to demand-side mitigation issues

|-
| Energy

| Greater incorporation of climate goals into sectoral agreements and institutions; formation of new specialised agencies (e.g., IRENA, SE4All) devoted to climate-compatible energy

| Need for enhanced financial support to place low-carbon energy sources on an equal footing with carbon-emitting energy in developing countries; investor–state dispute settlement mechanisms designed to protect the interests of companies engaged in high-carbon energy supply from national policies; ensuring just transition; and, addressing stranded assets

|-
| AFOLU

| Bilateral support for REDD+ activities; transnational partnerships disincentivising use of products from degraded lands

| Need for increased global finance for forest restoration projects and REDD+ activities; failure of national governments to meet internationally agreed upon targets with respect to deforestation and restoration; no cooperative mechanisms in place to address agricultural emissions

|-
| Urban systems

| Transnational partnerships enhancing the capacity of municipal governments to design and implement effective policies

| Need for increased financial support for climate-compatible urban infrastructure development

|-
| Buildings

| Transnational initiative aimed at developing regional roadmaps

| Need for formal international cooperation to enhance mitigation activities in buildings

|-
| Transport

| Sectoral agreements in aviation and shipping begin to address climate concerns

| Need to raise the level of ambition in sectoral agreements consistent with the Paris Agreement and complete decarbonisation, especially as emissions from international aviation and shipping continue to grow, unaccounted for in NDCs

|-
| Industry

| Transnational partnerships and networks encouraging the adoption of zero-emission supply chain targets

| No formal multilateral or bilateral cooperation to address issues of decarbonisation in industry

|-
| Cross-sectoral, including CDR and SRM

| International agreements addressing risks of ocean-based CDR

| Lack of cooperative mechanisms addressing risks and benefits of SRM; lack of cooperative mechanisms addressing financial and governance aspects of land- and technology-based CDR

|}

'''Table 14.5 | Illustrative examples of multi-level governance addressing criteria of effectiveness.'''

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Environmental effectiveness

! Transformative potential

! Distributive outcomes

! Economic effectiveness

! Institutional strength

|-
| UNFCCC

| Stabilisation goal, and quasi-targets for industrialised countries

| Financial mechanism; technology mechanism, provisions for capacity building

| Financial mechanism, transfers from developed to developing countries; leadership role for industrialised countries listed in Annex 1

|
| Reporting requirements; capacity building for national climate change offices

|-
| Kyoto Protocol

| Binding national targets for industrialised countries

|
| Adaptation Fund; targets restricted to industrialised countries

| Market-based mechanisms

| Emissions accounting and reporting requirements; institutional capacity building

|-
| Paris Agreement

| NDCs and the global stocktake

| Mechanisms for capacity building and technology development and transfer

| Furthering financial commitments under the UNFCCC, including enhanced transparency on finance

| Voluntary cooperation

| Mechanism for enhanced transparency

|-
| Other multilateral agreements

(Montreal Protocol, SDG 7, etc.)

| Phase out of ozone-depleting substances with high global warming potential; significant effects on GHG mitigation

| Ozone Fund; technology transfer; development and sharing of knowledge and expertise

| SDGs embedding mitigation in sustainable development

|
| Processes for adjustment and amendment; reporting requirements

|-
| Multilateral and regional economic agreements and institutions

| Harmonised lending practices of MDBs; mainstreaming climate change into IMF practices; liberalisation of trade in climate-friendly goods and services; negative effect from regulatory chill

|
| Concessional financing agreements

|
| Potentially negative results from dispute settlement processes

|-
| Sectoral agreements and institutions

| Climate mitigation targets and actions in AFOLU, energy, and transport

| Institutions devoted to developing and deploying zero-carbon energy technologies (e.g., IRENA)

|
| Use of carbon offsets to reduce growth in emissions from aviation

|
|-
| Transnational networks and partnerships

| Youth climate movement raising mitigation and fossil fuel divestment on political agendas and in financial sector

| Non-state actor commitments to renewable energy-based supply chains

| Climate justice legal initiatives

|
| City networks providing information exchange and technical support

|}

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