Editing IPCC:AR6/WGIII/Chapter-9 (section)

==== 9.8.4.2 Improved Access to Energy Sources, Gender Equality and Time Savings ====

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In most low- and middle-income developing countries women and children (particularly girls) spend a significant amount of their time for gathering fuels for cooking and heating ( [[#World%20Health%20Organization--2016|World Health Organization 2016]] ; [[#Rosenthal--2018|Rosenthal et al. 2018]] ). For example, in Africa more than 70% of the children living in households that primarily cook with polluting fuels spend at least 15 hours and, in some countries, more than 30 hours per week in collecting wood or water, facing significant safety risks and constraints on their available time for education and rest ( [[#World%20Health%20Organization--2016|World Health Organization 2016]] ; [[#Mehetre--2017|Mehetre et al. 2017]] ). Also, in several developing countries (e.g., in most African countries but also in India, in rural areas in Latin America and elsewhere) women spend several hours to collect fuel wood and cook, thus limiting their potential for productive activities for income generation or rest ( [[#García-Frapolli--2010|García-Frapolli et al. 2010]] ; [[#World%20Health%20Organization--2016|World Health Organization 2016]] ; [[#Mehetre--2017|Mehetre et al. 2017]] ). Expanding access to clean household energy for cooking, heating and lighting will largely help alleviate these burdens ( [[#Malla--2011|Malla et al. 2011]] ; [[#World%20Health%20Organization--2016|World Health Organization 2016]] ; [[#Lewis--2017|Lewis et al. 2017]] ; [[#Rosenthal--2018|Rosenthal et al. 2018]] ). [[#Jeuland--2018|Jeuland et al. (2018)]] found that the time savings associated with the adoption of cleaner and more fuel-efficient stoves by low-income households in developing countries are amount to USD1.3–1.9 per household per month, constituting the 23–43% of the total social benefits attributed to the promotion of clean stoves.

Electrification of remote rural areas and other regions that do not have access to electricity enables people living in poor developing countries to read, socialise, and be more productive during the evening, while it is also associated with greater school attendance by children ( [[#Torero--2015|Torero 2015]] ; [[#Rao--2016|Rao et al. 2016]] ; [[#Barnes--2018|Barnes and Samad 2018]] ). [[#Chakravorty--2014|Chakravorty et al. (2014)]] found that a grid connection can increase non-agricultural incomes of rural households in India from 9% up to 28.6% (assuming a higher quality of electricity). On the other hand, some studies clearly show that electricity consumption for connected households is extremely low, with limited penetration of electrical appliances ( [[#Cameron--2016|Cameron et al. 2016]] ; [[#Lee--2017|Lee et al. 2017]] ) and low quality of electricity ( [[#Chakravorty--2014|Chakravorty et al. 2014]] ). The implementation of appropriate policies to overcome bureaucratic red tape, low reliability, and credit constraints, is necessary for maximising the social benefits of electrification.

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