Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-8 (section)

===== 8.6.1.2.4 Energy =====

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The continued dependence on fossil energy sources for economic development is the primary source of increasing GHGs ( [[#Hansen--2017|Hansen et al., 2017]] ). There is emerging agreement in terms of the importance of the bioenergy sector for climate change mitigation ( [[#Jackson--2016|Jackson et al., 2016]] ; [[#Hansen--2017|Hansen et al., 2017]] ), however, the options and limitations in terms of transforming the energy systems to support both mitigation and adaptation are still contested.

About 1 billion people globally (12.5% of the world’s population) do not have access to electricity ( [[#World%20Bank--2021|World Bank, 2021]] ), and yet access to electricity is required for basic adaptation strategies, such as the use of air conditioning and fans in homes and working spaces to mitigate heat stress and enable healthier lives, daytime activities and night-time sleep quality. Electrification enables farmers to mechanically pump water from the underground to boost agricultural productivity, stabilise yields and make food security less reliant on erratic rainfall patterns and less vulnerable to dry spells. Access to electricity enables the spread of valuable information through television, radio, computers and smartphones, including weather forecasts and disaster prevention and response ( [[#Dagnachew--2018|Dagnachew et al., 2018]] ). The increasing access to electricity facilitates SDG 7 coupled with other SDGs and societal goals, including mitigation of climate change ( [[#van%20Vuuren--2018|van Vuuren et al., 2018]] ) through reducing energy consumption by the use of efficient technology and appliances. Electricity access can be an important enabler of adaptation action for different purposes in different sectors ( [[#Mastrucci--2019|Mastrucci et al., 2019]] ).

Low-carbon development strategies can also be compatible with ecological sustainability, as proponents of bioenergy have claimed. Bioenergy can contribute to reducing emissions and energy inefficiencies in agricultural food and bioenergy sectors, while safeguarding food and energy security. However, recent literature also points towards significant tensions and mismatches between increasing bioenergy on agricultural land and local livelihoods and food security ( [[#Yildiz--2019|Yildiz, 2019]] ). A growing list of studies have documented the detrimental trade-offs between smallholder food systems and large-scale biofuel production, which include dispossession and impoverishment of smallholder farmers, food insecurity, food shortages and social instability ( [[#Hunsberger--2017|Hunsberger et al., 2017]] ). Nevertheless, synergies between bioenergy and food security can be promoted by integrated resource management designed to improve both food and water security and access to bioenergy; investments in technology, rural extension, promotion of stable prices to incentivise local production; and use of double cropping and flex crops to provide food and energy ( [[#Souza--2017|Souza et al., 2017]] ).

Trade-offs of bioenergy can be minimised by replacing land-intensive first-generation biofuels (e.g., oil palm) with second and subsequent generations (e.g., microalgae). However, there are costs of relying on ‘sustainable biofuels’ as most of the agricultural and non-agricultural land would be needed for cultivation of biofuels along with reduction in patterns of energy consumption a significant reduction in population ( [[#Gomiero--2015|Gomiero, 2015]] ). Contrasting impacts on environmental, economic and social sustainability are reported for production and use of biofuels ( [[#Azapagic--2011|Azapagic and Perdan, 2011]] ), ranging from positive impacts, such as reduction in GHG emissions, energy security and rural development, to negative impacts, such as risks of increasing food prices, increasing GHG emissions through direct and indirect land use change from production of biofuel feedstocks, and degradation of land, forests, water resources and ecosystems ( [[#UNEP--2009|UNEP, 2009]] ). Biofuel production may cause loss of biodiversity ( [[#Jeswani--2020|Jeswani et al., 2020]] ) and may also impact various ecosystem services, such as land, water and food, and may pollute air, water and soil ( [[#Scovronick--2014|Scovronick and Wilkinson, 2014]] ). The collective benefits of biofuels could be realised by developing future policies based on integrated systems with a clear understanding about the interactions across sectors and land uses gained by analysing complete value chains ( [[#Jeswani--2020|Jeswani et al., 2020]] ).

Clean sources of energy, such as solar and wind, can facilitate both mitigation and adaptation. For example, in South Africa, clean sources of energy provide energy security with huge water savings along with creation of employment, proximity to point of use and, in many cases, less reliance on concentrated sources of energy ( [[#Mpandeli--2018|Mpandeli et al., 2018]] ). Overall, the increased use of thermal solar panels contributes to reducing GHG emissions and improves air quality, as well as providing benefits to the community and the environment. The differential adoption of solar panels can be managed by simultaneous investment in other technologies that utilise renewable energy along with investment in solar panels ( [[#Kaya--2019|Kaya et al., 2019]] ). Development of a smart electricity grid connected to a renewable energy source reduces GHG emissions and decreases vulnerability to climate change by enhancing the response to changing conditions and providing a more reliable service to the population ( [[#Hennessey--2017|Hennessey et al., 2017]] ). Moreover, development of policies for a low-carbon and climate-resilient power system, a local nexus between mitigation and adaptation could be explored ( [[#Handayani--2020|Handayani et al., 2020]] ). For example, use of efficient fuel in urban areas facilitates air pollution reduction and also provides health benefits for urban populations ( [[#Ramaswami--2017|Ramaswami et al., 2017]] ). Green buildings substantially reduce energy consumption and also improve indoor environmental quality and thus contribute to mitigation and provide societal value in terms of health ( [[#MacNaughton--2018|MacNaughton et al., 2018]] ). In addition, green-roofed buildings contribute to keeping local temperatures cooler during hot days and thereby reducing energy use for air conditioning and thus contributing to both mitigation and adaptation ( [[#Sharma--2016|Sharma et al., 2016]] ).

Positive synergies between adaptation and mitigation in the energy sector can include changes in production technologies and utilisation of technologies by various industries, changes in consumer or corporate behaviour, and the development of policies that alter the energy sector activities sufficiently to achieve a combination of reduced GHGs emissions and increased benefits for communities ( [[#Morand--2015|Morand et al., 2015]] ). However, the policy perspective must be based on the country circumstances, especially urbanisation, economic growth and energy consumption matching with the income level of the country ( [[#Wang--2018|Wang et al., 2018]] ).

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