Editing IPCC:AR6/SYR/Longer-Report (section)

=== 2.2 Responses Undertaken to Date ===

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'''International climate agreements, rising national ambitions for climate action, along with rising public awareness are accelerating efforts to address climate change at multiple levels of governance. Mitigation policies have contributed to a decrease in global energy and carbon intensity, with several countries achieving GHG emission reductions for over a decade. Low-emission technologies are becoming more affordable, with many low or zero emissions options now available for energy, buildings, transport, and industry. Adaptation planning and implementation progress has generated multiple benefits, with effective adaptation options having the potential to reduce climate risks and contribute to sustainable development. Global tracked finance for mitigation and adaptation has seen an upward trend since AR5, but falls short of needs. ( '''''high confidence''''' )'''
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==== 2.2.1. Global Policy Setting ====

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'''The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC), Kyoto Protocol, and Paris Agreement are supporting rising levels of national ambition and encouraging the development and implementation of climate policies at multiple levels of governance (''' '''''high confidence).''''' The Kyoto Protocol led to reduced emissions in some countries and was instrumental in building national and international capacity for GHG reporting, accounting and emissions markets ( ''high confidence'' ). The Paris Agreement, adopted under the UNFCCC, with near universal participation, has led to policy development and target-setting at national and sub-national levels, particularly in relation to mitigation but also for adaptation, as well as enhanced transparency of climate action and support ( ''medium confidence'' ). Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), required under the Paris Agreement, have required countries to articulate their priorities and ambition with respect to climate action. { ''WGII 17.4, WGII TS D.1.1; WGIII SPM B.5.1, WGIII SPM E.6'' }

Loss &amp; Damage '''[[#footnote-075|82]]''' was formally recognized in 2013 through establishment of the Warsaw International Mechanism on Loss and Damage (WIM), and in 2015, Article 8 of the Paris Agreement provided a legal basis for the WIM. There is improved understanding of both economic and non-economic losses and damages, which is informing international climate policy and which has highlighted that losses and damages are not comprehensively addressed by current financial, governance and institutional arrangements, particularly in vulnerable developing countries ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.3.5, WGII Cross-Chapter Box LOSS'' }

Other recent global agreements that influence responses to climate change include the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030), the finance-oriented Addis Ababa Action Agenda (2015) and the New Urban Agenda (2016), and the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (2016), among others. In addition, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted in 2015 by UN member states, sets out 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and seeks to align efforts globally to prioritise ending extreme poverty, protect the planet and promote more peaceful, prosperous and inclusive societies. If achieved, these agreements would reduce climate change, and the impacts on health, well-being, migration, and conflict, among others ( ''very high confidence'' ). { ''WGII TS.A.1, WGII 7 ES'' }

'''Since AR5, rising public awareness and an increasing diversity of actors, have overall helped accelerate political commitment and global efforts to address climate change''' '''''(''''' '''''medium confidence).''''' Mass social movements have emerged as catalysing agents in some regions, often building on prior movements including Indigenous Peoples-led movements, youth movements, human rights movements, gender activism, and climate litigation, which is raising awareness and, in some cases, has influenced the outcome and ambition of climate governance. ( ''medium confidence'' ). Engaging Indigenous Peoples and local communities using just-transition and rights-based decision-making approaches, implemented through collective and participatory decision-making processes has enabled deeper ambition and accelerated action in different ways, and at all scales, depending on national circumstances ( ''medium confidence'' ). The media helps shape the public discourse about climate change. This can usefully build public support to accelerate climate action ( ''medium evidence, high agreement'' ). In some instances, public discourses of media and organised counter movements have impeded climate action, exacerbating helplessness and disinformation and fuelling polarisation, with negative implications for climate action ( ''medium confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.5.1, WGII SPM D.2, WGII TS.D.9, WGII TS.D.9.7, WGII TS.E.2.1, WGII 18.4; WGIII SPM D.3.3, WGIII SPM E.3.3, WGIII TS.6.1, WGIII 6.7, WGIII 13 ES, WGIII Box.13.7'' }

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==== 2.2.2. Mitigation Actions to Date ====

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'''There has been a consistent expansion of policies and laws addressing mitigation since AR5''' '''''(''''' '''''high confidence).''''' Climate governance supports mitigation by providing frameworks through which diverse actors interact, and a basis for policy development and implementation ( ''medium confidence'' ). Many regulatory and economic instruments have already been deployed successfully ( ''high confidence'' ). By 2020, laws primarily focussed on reducing GHG emissions existed in 56 countries covering 53% of global emissions ( ''medium confidence'' ). The application of diverse policy instruments for mitigation at the national and sub-national levels has grown consistently across a range of sectors. ( ''high confidence'' ). Policy coverage is uneven across sectors and remains limited for emissions from agriculture, and from industrial materials and feedstocks ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGIII SPM B.5, WGIII SPM B.5.2, WGIII SPM E.3, WGIII SPM E.4'' }

Practical experience has informed economic instrument design and helped to improve predictability, environmental effectiveness, economic efficiency, alignment with distributional goals, and social acceptance ( ''high confidence'' ). Low-emission technological innovation is strengthened through the combination of technology-push policies, together with policies that create incentives for behaviour change and market opportunities. ( ''high confidence'' ). (Section 4.8.3). Comprehensive and consistent policy packages have been found to be more effective than single policies ( ''high confidence'' ). Combining mitigation with policies to shift development pathways, policies that induce lifestyle or behaviour changes, for example, measures promoting walkable urban areas combined with electrification and renewable energy can create health co-benefits from cleaner air and enhanced active mobility ( ''high confidence'' ). Climate governance enables mitigation by providing an overall direction, setting targets, mainstreaming climate action across policy domains and levels, based on national circumstances and in the context of international cooperation. Effective governance enhances regulatory certainty, creating specialised organisations and creating the context to mobilise finance ( ''medium confidence'' ). These functions can be promoted by climate-relevant laws, which are growing in number, or climate strategies, among others, based on national and sub-national context ( ''medium confidence'' ). Effective and equitable climate governance builds on engagement with civil society actors, political actors, businesses, youth, labour, media, Indigenous Peoples and local communities ( ''medium confidence'' ). { ''WGIII SPM E.2.2, WGIII SPM E.3, WGIII SPM E.3.1, WGIII SPM E.4.2, WGIII SPM E.4.3, WGIII SPM E.4.4'' }

'''The unit costs of several low-emission technologies, including solar, wind and lithium-ion batteries, have fallen consistently since 2010 (Figure 2.4). Design and process innovations in combination with the use of digital technologies have led to near-commercial availability of many low or zero emissions options in buildings, transport and industry.''' From 2010-2019, there have been sustained decreases in the unit costs of solar energy (by 85%), wind energy (by 55%), and lithium-ion batteries (by 85%), and large increases in their deployment, e.g., &gt;10× for solar and &gt;100× for electric vehicles (EVs), albeit varying widely across regions (Figure 2.4). Electricity from PV and wind is now cheaper than electricity from fossil sources in many regions, electric vehicles are increasingly competitive with internal combustion engines, and large-scale battery storage on electricity grids is increasingly viable. In comparison to modular small-unit size technologies, the empirical record shows that multiple large-scale mitigation technologies, with fewer opportunities for learning, have seen minimal cost reductions and their adoption has grown slowly. Maintaining emission-intensive systems may, in some regions and sectors, be more expensive than transitioning to low emission systems. ( ''high confidence'' ) { ''WGIII SPM B.4, WGIII SPM B.4.1, WGIII SPM C.4.2, WGIII SPM C.5.2, WGIII SPM C.7.2, WGIII SPM C.8, WGIII Figure SPM.3, WGIII Figure SPM.3'' }

For almost all basic materials – primary metals, building materials and chemicals – many low- to zero-GHG intensity production processes are at the pilot to near-commercial and in some cases commercial stage but they are not yet established industrial practice. Integrated design in construction and retrofit of buildings has led to increasing examples of zero energy or zero carbon buildings. Technological innovation made possible the widespread adoption of LED lighting. Digital technologies including sensors, the internet of things, robotics, and artificial intelligence can improve energy management in all sectors; they can increase energy efficiency, and promote the adoption of many low-emission technologies, including decentralised renewable energy, while creating economic opportunities. However, some of these climate change mitigation gains can be reduced or counterbalanced by growth in demand for goods and services due to the use of digital devices. Several mitigation options, notably solar energy, wind energy, electrification of urban systems, urban green infrastructure, energy efficiency, demand side management, improved forest- and crop/grassland management, and reduced food waste and loss, are technically viable, are becoming increasingly cost effective and are generally supported by the public, and this enables expanded deployment in many regions. ( ''high confidence'' ) { ''WGIII SPM B.4.3, WGIII SPM C.5.2, WGIII SPM C.7.2, WGIII SPM E.1.1, WGIII TS.6.5'' }

'''The magnitude of global climate finance flows has increased and financing channels have broadened (''' '''''high confidence).''''' Annual tracked total financial flows for climate mitigation and adaptation increased by up to 60% between 2013/14 and 2019/20, but average growth has slowed since 2018 ( ''medium confidence'' ).and most climate finance stays within national borders ( ''high confidence'' ). Markets for green bonds, environmental, social and governance and sustainable finance products have expanded significantly since AR5 ( ''high confidence'' ). Investors, central banks, and financial regulators are driving increased awareness of climate risk to support climate policy development and implementation ( ''high confidence'' ). Accelerated international financial cooperation is a critical enabler of low-GHG and just transitions ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGIII SPM B.5.4, WGIII SPM E.5, WGIII TS.6.3, WGIII TS.6.4'' }

Economic instruments have been effective in reducing emissions, complemented by regulatory instruments mainly at the national and also sub-national and regional level ( ''high confidence'' ). By 2020, over 20% of global GHG emissions were covered by carbon taxes or emissions trading systems, although coverage and prices have been insufficient to achieve deep reductions ( ''medium confidence'' ). Equity and distributional impacts of carbon pricing instruments can be addressed by using revenue from carbon taxes or emissions trading to support low-income households, among other approaches. ( ''high confidence'' ). The mix of policy instruments which reduced costs and stimulated adoption of solar energy, wind energy and lithium-ion batteries includes public R&amp;D, funding for demonstration and pilot projects, and demand-pull instruments such as deployment subsidies to attain scale ( ''high confidence'' ) (Figure 2.4). { ''WGIII SPM B.4.1, WGIII SPM B.5.2, WGIII SPM E.4.2, WGIII TS.3'' }

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'''Figure 2.4: Unit cost reductions and use in some rapidly changing mitigation technologies.''' The '''top panel (a)''' shows global costs per unit of energy (USD per MWh) for some rapidly changing mitigation technologies. Solid blue lines indicate average unit cost in each year. Light blue shaded areas show the range between the 5th and 95th percentiles in each year. Yellow shading indicates the range of unit costs for new fossil fuel (coal and gas) power in 2020 (corresponding to USD 55 to 148 per MWh). In 2020, the levelised costs of energy (LCOE) of the three renewable energy technologies could compete with fossil fuels in many places. For batteries, costs shown are for 1 kWh of battery storage capacity; for the others, costs are LCOE, which includes installation, capital, operations, and maintenance costs per MWh of electricity produced. The literature uses LCOE because it allows consistent comparisons of cost trends across a diverse set of energy technologies to be made. However, it does not include the costs of grid integration or climate impacts. Further, LCOE does not take into account other environmental and social externalities that may modify the overall (monetary and non-monetary) costs of technologies and alter their deployment. The '''bottom panel (b)''' shows cumulative global adoption for each technology, in GW of installed capacity for renewable energy and in millions of vehicles for battery-electric vehicles. A vertical dashed line is placed in 2010 to indicate the change over the past decade. The electricity production share reflects different capacity factors; for example, for the same amount of installed capacity, wind produces about twice as much electricity as solar PV. Renewable energy and battery technologies were selected as illustrative examples because they have recently shown rapid changes in costs and adoption, and because consistent data are available. Other mitigation options assessed in the WGIII report are not included as they do not meet these criteria. { ''WGIII Figure SPM.3, WGIII 2.5, 6.4'' }

[https://www.ipcc.ch/figures/figure-2-4 ]

'''Mitigation actions, supported by policies, have contributed to a decrease in global energy and carbon intensity between 2010 and 2019, with a growing number of countries achieving absolute GHG emission reductions for more than a decade (''' '''''high confidence).''''' While global net GHG emissions have increased since 2010, global energy intensity (total primary energy per unit GDP) decreased by 2% yr ''–1'' between 2010 and 2019. Global carbon intensity (CO 2 -FFI per unit primary energy) also decreased by 0.3% yr ''–1'' , mainly due to fuel switching from coal to gas, reduced expansion of coal capacity, and increased use of renewables, and with large regional variations over the same period. In many countries, policies have enhanced energy efficiency, reduced rates of deforestation and accelerated technology deployment, leading to avoided and in some cases reduced or removed emissions ( ''high confidence'' ). At least 18 countries have sustained production-based CO 2 and GHG and consumption-based CO 2 absolute emission reductions for longer than 10 years since 2005 through energy supply decarbonization, energy efficiency gains, and energy demand reduction, which resulted from both policies and changes in economic structure. ( ''high confidence'' ). Some countries have reduced production-based GHG emissions by a third or more since peaking, and some have achieved reduction rates of around 4% yr ''–1'' for several years consecutively ( ''high confidence'' ). Multiple lines of evidence suggest that mitigation policies have led to avoided global emissions of several GtCO 2 -eq yr ''–1'' ( ''medium confidence'' ). At least 1.8 GtCO 2 -eq yr ''–1'' of avoided emissions can be accounted for by aggregating separate estimates for the effects of economic and regulatory instruments ( ''medium confidence'' ). Growing numbers of laws and executive orders have impacted global emissions and are estimated to have resulted in 5.9 GtCO 2 -eq yr ''–1'' of avoided emissions in 2016 ''(medium confidence)'' . These reductions have only partly offset global emissions growth ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGIII SPM B.1, WGIII SPM B.2.4, WGIII SPM B.3.5, WGIII SPM B.5.1, WGIII SPM B.5.3, WGIII 1.3.2, WGIII 2.2.3'' }

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==== 2.2.3. Adaptation Actions to Date ====

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'''Progress in adaptation planning and implementation has been observed across all sectors and regions, generating multiple benefits (''' '''''very high confidence).''''' The ambition, scope and progress on adaptation have risen among governments at the local, national and international levels, along with businesses, communities and civil society ( ''high confidence'' ). Various tools, measures and processes are available that can enable, accelerate and sustain adaptation implementation ( ''high confidence'' ). Growing public and political awareness of climate impacts and risks has resulted in at least 170 countries and many cities including adaptation in their climate policies and planning processes ( ''high confidence'' ). Decision support tools and climate services are increasingly being used ( ''very high confidence'' ) and pilot projects and local experiments are being implemented in different sectors ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.1, WGII SPM.C.1.1, WGII TS.D.1.3, WGII TS.D.10'' }

Adaptation to water-related risks and impacts make up the majority (~60%) of all documented '''[[#footnote-074|83]]''' adaptation. ( ''high confidence'' ). A large number of these adaptation responses are in the agriculture sector and these include on-farm water management, water storage, soil moisture conservation, and irrigation. Other adaptations in agriculture include cultivar improvements, agroforestry, community-based adaptation and farm and landscape diversification among others ( ''high confidence'' ). For inland flooding, combinations of non-structural measures like early warning systems, enhancing natural water retention such as by restoring wetlands and rivers, and land use planning such as no build zones or upstream forest management, can reduce flood risk ( ''medium confidence'' ). Some land-related adaptation actions such as sustainable food production, improved and sustainable forest management, soil organic carbon management, ecosystem conservation and land restoration, reduced deforestation and degradation, and reduced food loss and waste are being undertaken, and can have mitigation co-benefits ( ''high confidence'' ). Adaptation actions that increase the resilience of biodiversity and ecosystem services to climate change include responses like minimising additional stresses or disturbances, reducing fragmentation, increasing natural habitat extent, connectivity and heterogeneity, and protecting small-scale refugia where microclimate conditions can allow species to persist ( ''high confidence'' ). Most innovations in urban adaptation have occurred through advances in disaster risk management, social safety nets and green/blue infrastructure ( ''medium confidence'' ). Many adaptation measures that benefit health and well-being are found in other sectors (e.g., food, livelihoods, social protection, water and sanitation, infrastructure) ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.2.1, WGII SPM C.2.2, WGII TS.D.1.2, WGII TS.D.1.4, WGII TS.D.4.2, WGII TS.D.8.3, WGII 4 ES; SRCCL SPM B.1.1'' }

Adaptation can generate multiple additional benefits such as improving agricultural productivity, innovation, health and well-being, food security, livelihood, and biodiversity conservation as well as reduction of risks and damages ( ''very high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C1.1'' } .

'''Globally tracked adaptation finance has shown an upward trend since AR5, but represents only a small portion of total climate finance, is uneven and has developed heterogeneously across regions and sectors (''' '''''high confidence).''''' Adaptation finance has come predominantly from public sources, largely through grants, concessional and non-concessional instruments ( ''very high confidence'' ). Globally, private-sector financing of adaptation from a variety of sources such as commercial financial institutions, institutional investors, other private equity, non-financial corporations, as well as communities and households has been limited, especially in developing countries ( ''high confidence'' ). Public mechanisms and finance can leverage private sector finance for adaptation by addressing real and perceived regulatory, cost and market barriers, for example via public-private partnerships ( ''high confidence'' ). Innovations in adaptation and resilience finance, such as forecast-based/anticipatory financing systems and regional risk insurance pools, have been piloted and are growing in scale ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.3.2, WGII SPM C.5.4; WGII TS.D.1.6, WGII Cross-Chapter Box FINANCE; WGIII SPM E.5.4'' }

'''There are adaptation options which are effective''' '''[[#footnote-073|84]] in reducing climate risks''' '''[[#footnote-072|85]] for specific contexts, sectors and regions and contribute positively to sustainable development and other societal goals.''' In the agriculture sector, cultivar improvements, on-farm water management and storage, soil moisture conservation, irrigation '''[[#footnote-071|86]]''' , agroforestry, community-based adaptation, and farm and landscape level diversification, and sustainable land management approaches, provide multiple benefits and reduce climate risks. Reduction of food loss and waste, and adaptation measures in support of balanced diets contribute to nutrition, health, and biodiversity benefits. ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.2, WGII SPM C.2.1, WGII SPM C.2.2; SRCCL B.2, SRCCL SPM C.2.1'' }

Ecosystem-based Adaptation '''[[#footnote-070|87]]''' approaches such as urban greening, restoration of wetlands and upstream forest ecosystems reduce a range of climate change risks, including flood risks, urban heat and provide multiple co-benefits. Some land-based adaptation options provide immediate benefits (e.g., conservation of peatlands, wetlands, rangelands, mangroves and forests); while afforestation and reforestation, restoration of high-carbon ecosystems, agroforestry, and the reclamation of degraded soils take more time to deliver measurable results. Significant synergies exist between adaptation and mitigation, for example through sustainable land management approaches. Agroecological principles and practices and other approaches that work with natural processes support food security, nutrition, health and well-being, livelihoods and biodiversity, sustainability and ecosystem services.. ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.2.1, WGII SPM C.2.2, WGII SPM C.2.5, WGII TS.D.4.1; SRCCL SPM B.1.2, SRCCL SPM.B.6.1; SROCC SPM C.2'' }

Combinations of non-structural measures like early warning systems and structural measures like levees have reduced loss of lives in case of inland flooding ( ''medium confidence'' ) and early warning systems along with flood-proofing of buildings have proven to be cost-effective in the context of coastal flooding under current sea level rise ( ''high confidence'' ). Heat Health Action Plans that include early warning and response systems are effective adaptation options for extreme heat ( ''high confidence'' ). Effective adaptation options for water, food and vector-borne diseases include improving access to potable water, reducing exposure of water and sanitation systems to extreme weather events, and improved early warning systems, surveillance, and vaccine development ( ''very high confidence'' ). Adaptation options such as disaster risk management, early warning systems, climate services and social safety nets have broad applicability across multiple sectors ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.2.1, WGII SPM C.2.5, WGII SPM C.2.9, WGII SPM C.2.11, WGII SPM C.2.13; SROCC SPM C.3.2'' }

Integrated, multi-sectoral solutions that address social inequities, differentiate responses based on climate risk and cut across systems, increase the feasibility and effectiveness of adaptation in multiple sectors. ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.2'' }

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