Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-3 (section)

=== 3.5.4 Other Provisioning Services ===

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==== 3.5.4.1 Non-Food Consumable Products ====

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The interaction of climate and non-climate drivers endangers the supply of non-food consumable products developed from marine organisms ( ''limited evidence, high agreement'' ). This broad class includes nutraceuticals (derived from fish, krill, shellfish, seaweeds and microbes), food preservatives or additives (derived from crustaceans, fish, microalgae and seaweeds, and cyanobacteria), pharmaceuticals (derived from fish, shellfish, microbes, cyanobacteria, corals and sponges) or cosmetic products (derived from sponges, phytoplankton and seaweeds, fish etc.) ( [[#Freitas--2012|Freitas et al., 2012]] ; [[#Dewapriya--2014|Dewapriya and Kim, 2014]] ; [[#Leal--2015|Leal and Calado, 2015]] ; [[#Stengel--2015|Stengel and Connan, 2015]] ; [[#Greene--2016|Greene et al., 2016]] ; [[#Ciavatta--2017|Ciavatta et al., 2017]] ; [[#Gutiérrez-Rodríguez--2018|Gutiérrez-Rodríguez et al., 2018]] ). But biodiversity changes, warming, acidification and non-climate drivers (especially fishing pressure) may decrease the availability of these organisms or the potency of the compounds they produce ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.7|Section 5.7.5.1]] ; Figure 3.23; Table 3.26; [[#Webster--2012|Webster and Taylor, 2012]] ; [[#Mehbub--2014|Mehbub et al., 2014]] ; [[#Kotta--2018|Kotta et al., 2018]] ; [[#Martins--2018|Martins et al., 2018]] ; [[#Conrad--2021|Conrad et al., 2021]] ). Observed and projected declines and movement of fish stocks due to fishing pressure and climate change impacts ( [[#IPCC--2019b|IPCC, 2019b]] ) have generated concerns that the supply and safety of fish and krill oil for human dietary supplements may decline ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.7|Section 5.7.5.1]] ; [[#Gribble--2016|Gribble et al., 2016]] ; [[#Lloret--2016|Lloret et al., 2016]] ). This risk can be lowered by technological adaptations ( [[#3.6.2.2|Section 3.6.2.2]] ), such as increasing the use of alternative sources like marine phytoplankton, macroalgae, marine microbes ( [[#Dewapriya--2014|Dewapriya and Kim, 2014]] ; [[#Greene--2016|Greene et al., 2016]] ; [[#Dave--2018|Dave and Routray, 2018]] ; [[#Nguyen--2020|Nguyen et al., 2020]] ) and underutilised resources such as fish, seal, crab and shrimp byproducts ( [[#Dave--2018|Dave and Routray, 2018]] ), and by improving extraction and processing efficiency ( [[#Cashion--2017|Cashion et al., 2017]] ). Climate effects on non-food consumable products could be widespread yet poorly detected, complicating assessment of impacts, risks and vulnerability reduction.

There is ''insufficient evidence'' to develop global projections of future climate impacts on humans through changes in non-food consumable marine products, but specific local examples have been investigated, such as the Arctic ooligan (eulachon; ''Thaleichthys pacificus'' ), a small smelt fish. Ooligan grease has been used by Indigenous Peoples of the North Pacific coast ( [[#Phinney--2009|Phinney et al., 2009]] ) for at least 5000 years to treat stomach aches, colds and skin conditions, and as a traditional food source high in omega-3 fatty acids ( [[#Byram--2001|Byram and Lewis, 2001]] ; [[#Cranmer--2016|Cranmer, 2016]] ; [[#Patton--2019|Patton et al., 2019]] ). Analysis of remains have shown that ooligan could comprise up to 67% of traditional historical fisheries catches ( [[#Patton--2019|Patton et al., 2019]] ). Because ooligan spawning relies on the timing of the spring freshet, and because the species has declined in the past 25 years due to fishing pressure and predation, the species may be at risk from combined climate-induced and non-climate drivers ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Talloni-Álvarez--2019|Talloni-Álvarez et al., 2019]] ). Projections under RCP2.6 or RCP8.5 estimate reductions by 21 or 31% by 2050 in essential nutrients from traditional seafood for Indigenous Peoples in Canada, relative to 2000, with a modelled nutritional deficit that includes non-traditional dietary substitutions ( [[#Marushka--2019|Marushka et al., 2019]] ).

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==== 3.5.4.2 Non-Consumable Goods ====

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''Limited evidence'' about climate impacts exists for valuable non-food aquatic materials. Ocean warming and acidification harm red coral ( ''Corallium rubrum'' ) ( [[#Bramanti--2013|Bramanti et al., 2013]] ) and communities hosting black coral ( ''Antipatharian'' spp.), both used for jewellery ( [[#Ross--2020|Ross et al., 2020]] ). While no-take MPAs ( [[#3.6.3.2|Section 3.6.3.2]] ) enhance red-coral structural complexity, they only weakly compensate for warming effects ( [[#Cerrano--2013|Cerrano et al., 2013]] ; [[#Montero-Serra--2019|Montero-Serra et al., 2019]] ). ''Antipatharian'' spp. are not well studied or monitored ( [[#Gress--2018|Gress and Andradi-Brown, 2018]] ). Acidification and warming negatively impact pearl oysters ( [[#Welladsen--2010|Welladsen et al., 2010]] ; [[#Liu--2012|Liu and He, 2012]] ; [[#Liu--2012|Liu et al., 2012]] ; [[#Hoegh-Guldberg--2014|Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2014]] ; [[#Zhang--2019b|Zhang et al., 2019b]] ). For example, projected climate impacts for 2035 would decrease the average net present value of French Polynesia’s pearl aquaculture industry by 29.1% compared with the present ( [[#Hilsenroth--2021|Hilsenroth et al., 2021]] ). Climate impacts on ornamental species sought by aquarists have not been well studied ( [[#Dee--2019b|Dee et al., 2019b]] ).

Decreasing the vulnerability of renewable-energy installations, particularly wind turbines, to climate risks (Table 3.26; [[#Bindoff--2019a|Bindoff et al., 2019a]] ) could include technological adaptations ( [[#3.6.2.2|Section 3.6.2.2]] ) such as storm ‘survival mode’ settings ( [[#Penalba--2018|Penalba et al., 2018]] ); preparation for hazards such as icing, SLR, drifting sea ice and wave activity ( [[#Neill--2018|Neill et al., 2018]] ; [[#Goodale--2019|Goodale and Milman, 2019]] ; [[#Solaun--2019|Solaun and Cerdá, 2019]] ); and biofouling ( ''medium confidence'' ) (Want and Porter, 2018; [[#Joyce--2019|Joyce et al., 2019]] ; [[#Vinagre--2020|Vinagre et al., 2020]] ), which is expected to increase in response to warming and acidification ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Dobretsov--2019|Dobretsov et al., 2019]] ; [[#Khosravi--2019|Khosravi et al., 2019]] ; [[#Liu--2020d|Liu et al., 2020d]] ; [[#Lamim--2021|Lamim and Procópio, 2021]] ). Macroalgae and fish-processing byproducts are being tested for biofuel use ( [[#Greene--2016|Greene et al., 2016]] ; [[#Alamsjah--2017|Alamsjah et al., 2017]] ; [[#Saifuddin--2017|Saifuddin and Boyce, 2017]] ; [[#Sakthivel--2018|Sakthivel et al., 2018]] ; [[#Sudhakar--2019|Sudhakar et al., 2019]] ; [[#Nguyen--2020|Nguyen et al., 2020]] ; [[#Ramachandra--2020|Ramachandra and Hebbale, 2020]] ; [[#Tan--2020|Tan et al., 2020]] ), but weather variability could pose financial risk to this sector ( [[#Kleiman--2021|Kleiman et al., 2021]] ).

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