Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-17 (section)

==== 17.5.2.2 Adaptation M&amp;E Approaches ====

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Adaptation M&amp;E can be conducted for various purposes and in a wide variety of different contexts ranging from the local to the global level ( [[#McKenzie%20Hedger--2008|McKenzie Hedger et al., 2008]] ; [[#UNFCCC--2010a|UNFCCC, 2010a]] ; [[#Spearman--2011|Spearman and McGray, 2011]] ). The context and specific purpose of M&amp;E determine what information needs to be generated, and together with the available resources also determine the suitability of particular approaches and methods ( [[#Leiter--2016|Leiter, 2016]] ; [[#Leiter--2017|Leiter, 2017]] ). Several frameworks and approaches have been proposed for M&amp;E of adaptation and climate resilience ( [[#Bours--2014d|Bours et al., 2014d]] ; [[#Schipper--2015|Schipper and Langston, 2015]] ; [[#Adaptation%20Committee--2016|Adaptation Committee, 2016]] ; [[#ODI--2016|ODI, 2016]] ; [[#Cai--2018|Cai et al., 2018]] ; [[#Gregorowski--2018|Gregorowski et al., 2018]] ), including sector-specific ones for agriculture ( [[#FAO--2017|FAO, 2017]] ; [[#FAO--2019a|FAO, 2019a]] ; [[#FAO--2019b|FAO, 2019b]] ), health ( [[#Ebi--2018|Ebi et al., 2018]] ), ecosystem-based adaptation ( [[#Donatti--2018|Donatti et al., 2018]] ; [[#Donatti--2020|Donatti et al., 2020]] ; [[#GIZ--2020|GIZ, 2020]] ) and cities ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.4.6|Section 6.4.6]] ).

Adaptation M&amp;E generally seeks to answer whether implementation is taking place and what effects it has (Figure 17.12). Accordingly, M&amp;E can focus on the processes, activities and outputs or on their outcomes and ultimate impacts ( [[#Harley--2008|Harley et al., 2008]] ; [[#Pringle--2011|Pringle, 2011]] ; [[#Ford--2013|Ford et al., 2013]] ). Most of the available guidance for the development of adaptation M&amp;E systems is aimed at the household, local or project level ( [[#Pringle--2011|Pringle, 2011]] ; [[#Villanueva--2012|Villanueva, 2012]] ; [[#Olivier--2013|Olivier et al., 2013]] ; [[#CARE--2014|CARE, 2014]] ; [[#BRACED--2015|BRACED, 2015]] ; [[#Leiter--2016|Leiter, 2016]] ; [[#Jones--2019b|Jones, 2019b]] ) with only limited guidance for national or cross-sectoral M&amp;E systems ( [[#Price-Kelly--2015|Price-Kelly et al., 2015]] ) or frameworks that are applicable at different scales ( [[#Brooks--2014|Brooks et al., 2014]] ). The available guidebooks take users through a series of steps which are synthesised in Figure 17.12.

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[[File:79840ac5ec788348e69a606a4c7948a1 IPCC_AR6_WGII_Figure_17_012.png]]

'''Figure 17.12 |''' '''Adaptation M&amp;E and learning as part of the adaptation process (based on Hammill et al''' '''.''' ''', 2014a; [[#Price-Kelly--2015|Price-Kelly et al., 2015]] ; [[#Leiter--2016|Leiter, 2016]] ).''' This figure shows the main steps involved in developing an adaptation M&amp;E system where the context informs the purpose of M&amp;E, which in turn determines the information needs. To achieve the M&amp;E purposes, the chosen approach and data sources need to be able to generate the needed information, which needs to be communicated in a suitable way to the target audiences.

The majority of adaptation M&amp;E efforts have so far focused on processes and outputs rather than on achieved outcomes such as climate risks, vulnerability, well-being or development ( [[#Droesch--2008|Droesch et al., 2008]] ; [[#GIZ%20and%20Adelphi--2017|GIZ and Adelphi, 2017]] ; UNDP [[#Cambodia--2014|Cambodia, 2014]] ; [[#Fawcett--2017|Fawcett et al., 2017]] ) ( ''high confidenc'' e) or use a combination thereof ( [[#Brooks--2011|Brooks et al., 2011]] ; [[#Brooks--2014|Brooks et al., 2014]] ). Newly emerging approaches include perception-based measurements and the use of data collected via mobile phones ( [[#Jones--2018|Jones et al., 2018]] ; [[#Jones--2019a|Jones, 2019a]] ), which can be collected frequently ( [[#Clare--2017a|Clare et al., 2017a]] ; [[#Knippenberg--2019|Knippenberg et al., 2019]] ; [[#Jones--2020|Jones and Ballon, 2020]] ). Such advances call into question the common reliance on ‘objective’ indicators defined from an external perspective. Instead, they suggest that multiple complementary approaches combined with higher-frequency data collection produce a more elaborate picture of the effects of adaptation and resilience responses ( [[#Jones--2019|Jones and d’Errico, 2019]] ; [[#Knippenberg--2019|Knippenberg et al., 2019]] ; [[#Singh--2019|Singh et al., 2019]] ; [[#Jones--2019a|Jones, 2019a]] ; see Cross-Chapter Box PROGRESS in this Chapter) ( ''medium confidence'' ).

Central to designing, monitoring and evaluating adaptation responses is outlining how activities are expected to lead to intended objectives, for example, via a theory of change ( [[#Bours--2014c|Bours et al., 2014c]] ; Oberlack and al., 2019). Theories of change or similar change models provide a basis to decide what to measure, but more attention needs to be paid to how theories of change are constructed and who is involved ( [[#Mason--2007|Mason and Barnes, 2007]] ; [[#Forsyth--2018|Forsyth, 2018]] ). Participatory approaches can support understanding how climate risks affect the respective population, how these risks interact with social and cultural processes, and how responses could most effectively address climate risks ( [[#Conway--2019|Conway et al., 2019]] ). Inclusive M&amp;E systems can facilitate ownership and enhance the meaningfulness and usability of the generated information ( [[#CARE--2014|CARE, 2014]] ; [[#Faulkner--2015|Faulkner et al., 2015]] ). Meaningfulness is not associated with a particular approach or method but depends on whether the chosen M&amp;E design fits the M&amp;E purpose and the information needs of the intended audience ( [[#Fisher--2015|Fisher et al., 2015]] ; [[#Leiter--2017|Leiter, 2017]] ). Effective communication of M&amp;E findings and feedback into decision-making processes is essential to achieve the respective M&amp;E purpose and facilitate learning ( [[#17.5.2.7|Section 17.5.2.7]] ).

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