Editing IPCC:AR6/SRCCL/Chapter-3 (section)

==== 3.7.5.1 Jordan ====

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Population growth, migration into Jordan and changes in climate have resulted in desertification of the Jordan Badia region. The Badia region covers more than 80% of the country’s area and receives less than 200 mm of rainfall per year, with some areas receiving less than 100 mm (Al-Tabini et al. 2012 <sup>[[#fn:r1727|1727]]</sup> ). Climate analysis has indicated a generally increasing dryness over the West Asia and Middle East region (AlSarmi and Washington 2011 <sup>[[#fn:r1728|1728]]</sup> ; Tanarhte et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r1729|1729]]</sup> ), with reduction in average annual rainfall in Jordan’s Badia area (De Pauw et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r1730|1730]]</sup> ). The incidence of extreme rainfall events has not declined over the region. Locally increased incidence of extreme events over the Mediterranean region has been proposed (Giannakopoulos et al. 2009 <sup>[[#fn:r1731|1731]]</sup> ).

The practice of intensive and localised livestock herding, in combination with deep ploughing and unproductive barley agriculture, are the main drivers of severe land degradation and depletion of the rangeland natural resources. This affected both the quantity and the diversity of vegetation as native plants with a high nutrition value were replaced with invasive species with low palatability and nutritional content (Abu-Zanat et al. 2004 <sup>[[#fn:r1732|1732]]</sup> ). The sparsely covered and crusted soils in Jordan’s Badia area have a low rainfall interception and infiltration rate, which leads to increased surface runoff and subsequent erosion and gullying, speeding up the drainage of rainwater from the watersheds, which can result in downstream flooding in Amman, Jordan (Oweis 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r1733|1733]]</sup> ).

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<span id="figure-3.17a"></span>
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'''Figure 3.17a'''

<span id="anewly-prepared-micro-water-harvesting-catchment-using-the-vallerani-system."></span>
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'''(a)Newly prepared micro water harvesting catchment, using the Vallerani system.'''
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[[File:1fb888a1be66840d4733d4e59b7d5d71 Figure-3.17a-e1575973543995-1024x576.jpg]]

(a)Newly prepared micro water harvesting catchment, using the Vallerani system.

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<span id="figure-3.17b"></span>
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'''Figure-3.17b'''

<span id="b-aerial-imaging-showing-micro-water-harvesting-catchment-treatment-after-planting"></span>
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'''(b) Aerial imaging showing micro water harvesting catchment treatment after planting'''
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[[File:c46f91b0be56e92c0e20ab15e4538313 Figure-3.17b-1024x768.jpg]]

(b) Aerial imaging showing micro water harvesting catchment treatment after planting

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<span id="figure-3.17c"></span>
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'''Figure 3.17c'''

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'''(c) one year after treatment. Source: Stefan Strohmeier.'''
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[[File:d5aac8ae1c063d1b3f3770d241841a5a Figure-3.17c.jpg]]

(c) one year after treatment. Source: Stefan Strohmeier.

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<span id="figure-3.18"></span>
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'''Figure 3.18'''

<span id="illustration-of-enhanced-soil-water-retention-in-the-mechanized-micro-rainwater-harvesting-compared-to-untreated-badia-rangelands-in-jordan-showing-precipitation-pcp-sustained-stress-level-resulting-in-decreased-production-field-capacity-and-wilting-point-for-available-soil-moisture-and-then-measured-soil-moisture-content-between-the-two-treatments-degraded-rangeland-and-the-restored-rangeland-with"></span>
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'''Illustration of enhanced soil water retention in the Mechanized Micro Rainwater Harvesting compared to untreated Badia rangelands in Jordan, showing precipitation (PCP), sustained stress level resulting in decreased production, field capacity and wilting point for available soil moisture, and then measured soil moisture content between the two treatments (degraded rangeland and the restored rangeland with […]'''
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[[File:5855d365bf8274031e1d2d6a42eef563 Figure-3.18-1024x604.jpg]]

Illustration of enhanced soil water retention in the Mechanized Micro Rainwater Harvesting compared to untreated Badia rangelands in Jordan, showing precipitation (PCP), sustained stress level resulting in decreased production, field capacity and wilting point for available soil moisture, and then measured soil moisture content between the two treatments (degraded rangeland and the restored rangeland with the Vallerani plough).

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To restore the desertified Badia an IWM plan was developed using hillslope-implemented water harvesting micro catchments as a targeted restoration approach (Tabieh et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r1734|1734]]</sup> ). Mechanized Micro Rainwater Harvesting (MIRWH) technology using the ‘Vallerani plough’ (Antinori and Vallerani 1994 <sup>[[#fn:r1735|1735]]</sup> ; Gammoh and Oweis 2011 <sup>[[#fn:r1736|1736]]</sup> ; Ngigi 2003 <sup>[[#fn:r1737|1737]]</sup> ) is being widely applied for rehabilitation of highly degraded rangeland areas in Jordan. A tractor digs out small water harvesting pits on the contour of the slope (Figure 3.17) allowing the retention, infiltration and local storage of surface runoff in the soil (Oweis 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r1739|1739]]</sup> ). The micro catchments are planted with native shrub seedlings, such as saltbush ( ''Atriplex halimus'' ), with enhanced survival as a function of increased soil moisture (Figure 3.18) and increased dry matter yields (&gt;300 kg ha <sup>–1</sup> ) that can serve as forage for livestock (Oweis 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r1738|1738]]</sup> ; Tabieh et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r1740|1740]]</sup> ).

Simultaneously to MIRWH upland measures, the gully erosion is being treated through intermittent stone plug intervention (Figure 3.19), stabilising the gully beds, increasing soil moisture in proximity of the plugs, dissipating the surface runoff’s energy, and mitigating further back-cutting erosion and quick drainage of water. Eventually, the treated gully areas silt up and dense vegetation cover can re-establish. In addition, grazing management practices are implemented to increase the longevity of the treatment. Ultimately, the recruitment processes and re-vegetation shall control the watershed’s hydrological regime through rainfall interception, surface runoff deceleration and filtration, combined with the less erodible and enhanced infiltration characteristics of the rehabilitated soils.

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<span id="figure-3.19a"></span>
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'''Figure 3.19a'''

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'''(a) Gully plug development in September 2017.'''
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[[File:f605e0a6fd89abf71f911bc3d3618186 Figure-3.19a.jpg]]

(a) Gully plug development in September 2017.

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'''Figure 3.19b'''

<span id="b-post-rainfall-event-march-2018.-near-amman-jordan.-source-stefan-strohmeier."></span>
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'''(b) Post-rainfall event (March 2018). Near Amman, Jordan. Source: Stefan Strohmeier.'''
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[[File:db037d1c28a821352a091a6f25dd9046 Figure-3.19b.jpg]]

(b) Post-rainfall event (March 2018). Near Amman, Jordan. Source: Stefan Strohmeier.

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In-depth understanding of the Badia’s rangeland status transition, coupled with sustainable rangeland management, are still subject to further investigation, development and adoption; a combination of all three is required to mitigate the ongoing degradation of the Middle Eastern rangeland ecosystems.

Oweis (2017) <sup>[[#fn:r1813|1813]]</sup> indicated that the cost of the fully automated Vallerani technique was approximately 32 USD ha-1. The total cost of the restoration package included the production, planting and maintenance of the shrub seedlings (11 USD ha <sup>–1)</sup> . Tabieh et al. (2015) <sup>[[#fn:r1812|1812]]</sup> calculated a benefit-cost ratio (BCR) of above 1.5 for re-vegetation of degraded Badia areas through MIRWH and saltbush. However, costs vary based on the seedling’s costs and availability of trained labour.

Water harvesting is not a recent scientific advancement. Water harvesting is known to have been developed during the Bronze Age and was widely practiced in the Negev Desert during the Byzantine time period (1300–1600 years ago) (Fried et al. 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r1741|1741]]</sup> ; Stavi et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r1742|1742]]</sup> ). Through construction of various structures made of packed clay and stone, water was either held on site in half-circular dam structures ( ''hafir)'' that faced up-slope to capture runoff, or on terraces that slowed water allowing it to infiltrate and to be stored in the soil profile. Numerous other systems were designed to capture water in below-ground cisterns to be used later to provide water to livestock or for domestic use. Other water harvesting techniques divert runoff from hillslopes or wadis and spread the water in a systematic manner across ''playas'' and the toe-slope of a hillslope. These systems allow production of crops in areas with 100 mm of average annual precipitation by harvesting an additional 300+ mm of water (Beckers et al. 2013 <sup>[[#fn:r1743|1743]]</sup> ). Water harvesting is a proven technology to mitigate or adapt to climate change where precipitation may be reduced, and allow for small-scale crop and livestock production to continue supporting local needs.

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