Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-11 (section)

==== 11.5.1.1 Observed Impacts ====

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Climate impacts are cascading, compounding and aggregating across sectors and systems due to complex interactions ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Pescaroli--2016|Pescaroli and Alexander, 2016]] ; [[#Challinor--2018|Challinor et al., 2018]] ; [[#Zscheischler--2018|Zscheischler et al., 2018]] ; [[#Steffen--2019|Steffen et al., 2019]] ; [[#AghaKouchak--2020|AghaKouchak et al., 2020]] ; [[#CoA--2020e|CoA, 2020e]] ; [[#Lawrence--2020b|Lawrence et al., 2020b]] ; [[#Simpson--2021|Simpson et al., 2021]] ) (Boxes 11.1, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5 and 11.6). Cascading impacts propagate via interconnections and systemic factors, including supply chains, shared reliance on connected biophysical systems (e.g., water catchments and ecosystems), infrastructure, essential goods and services and the exercise of governance, leadership, regulation, resources and standard practices (e.g., in planning and building codes), including lock-in of past decisions and experience ( [[#CSIRO--2018|CSIRO, 2018]] ; [[#Lawrence--2020b|Lawrence et al., 2020b]] ). The capacity of critical systems such as information, communication and technology, water infrastructure, health care, electricity and transport networks, is being stretched, with impacts cascading to other systems and places, exacerbating existing hazards and generating new risks ( [[#Cradock-Henry--2017|Cradock-Henry, 2017]] ) (11.3.6; 11.3.10; Box 11.1). Temporal or spatial overlap of hazards (e.g., drought, extreme heat and fire; drought followed by extreme rainfall) are compounding impacts ( [[#Zscheischler--2018|Zscheischler et al., 2018]] ) and affecting multiple sectors.

Extreme events such as heatwaves, droughts, floods, storms and fires have caused deaths and injuries ( [[#Deloitte--2017a|Deloitte, 2017a]] ) (11.3.5.1), and affected many households, communities and businesses via impacts on ecosystems, critical infrastructure, essential services, food production, the national economy, valued places and employment. This has created long-lasting impacts (e.g., mental health, homelessness, health incidents and reduced health services) ( [[#Brown--2017|Brown et al., 2017]] ; [[#Brookfield--2018|Brookfield and Fitzgerald, 2018]] ; [[#Rychetnik--2019|Rychetnik et al., 2019]] ) and reduced adaptive capacity ( [[#Friel--2014|Friel et al., 2014]] ; [[#O’Brien--2014|O’Brien et al., 2014]] ; [[#Ding--2015|Ding et al., 2015]] ; [[#CoA--2020e|CoA, 2020e]] ) (Box 11.1, Box 11.3, 11.3.1–11.3.10).

In New Zealand, extreme snow, rainfall and wind events have combined to impact road networks, power and water supplies and have impeded interdependent wastewater and stormwater services and business activities ( [[#Deloitte--2019|Deloitte, 2019]] ; [[#Lawrence--2020b|Lawrence et al., 2020b]] ; [[#MfE--2020a|MfE, 2020a]] ) (Box 11.4). Community and infrastructure services are periodically disrupted during extreme weather events, triggering impacts from the interdependencies across enterprises and individuals ( [[#Glavovic--2014|Glavovic, 2014]] ; [[#Paulik--2021|Paulik et al., 2021]] ).

Slow-onset climate change impacts have also had cascading and compounding effects. For example, degradation of the GBR by ocean heating, acidification and non-climatic pressures ( [[#Marshall--2019|Marshall et al., 2019]] ), repeated pluvial, fluvial and coastal flooding of some settlements ( [[#Paulik--2019a|Paulik et al., 2019a]] ; [[#Paulik--2020|Paulik et al., 2020]] ), long droughts and water insecurity in rural communities ( [[#Tschakert--2017|Tschakert et al., 2017]] ) and the gradual loss of species and ecological communities have caused substantial ecological, social and economic losses. Indigenous Peoples have especially been impacted by multiple and complex losses ( [[#Johnson--2021|Johnson et al., 2021]] ) (11.4).

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