Editing IPCC:AR6/WGIII/Chapter-13 (section)

=== 13.8.3 Relationships Between Mitigation and Adaptation Measures ===

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There are multiple ways that mitigation and adaptation may be integrated. sets out those relationships broken down into four areas: adaptation that contributes to mitigation; mitigation that contributes to adaptation; holistic, sustainability first strategies; and trade-offs. The table shows that more holistic and sustainability-oriented policies can open up the possibility for accelerated transitions across multiple priority domains ( ''robust evidence'' , ''hi'' ''gh agreement'' ).

'''Table 13.3 | Relationships between adaptation and mitiga''' '''tion measures.'''

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Policy/action

! Interrelation explained

! Reference

|-
| colspan="3"| ''Adaptation that contributes to mitigation''

|-
| '''Coastal adaptation and blue carbon; developing strategies for conservation and restoration of blue carbon ecosystems generating resilient communities and landscapes.'''

– '''Contributes to carbon storage and sequestration.'''

| Conservation of habitats and ecosystems, protect communities from extreme events, increase food security, and provide ecosystem services. At the same time, restoration of mangroves, tidal marshes, and seagrasses have high rates of carbon sequestration, act as long-term carbon sinks, and are contained within clear national jurisdictions. '''Example:''' conservation programmes on Brazilian mangroves, Spanish seagrass meadows, the Great Barriers Reef in Australia, and Coastal Management Strategy in New Zealand.

| [[#Andresen--2012|Andresen et al. (2012)]] ; [[#Herr--2016|Herr and Landis (2016)]] ; [[#Duarte--2017|Duarte (2017)]] ; Doll and Oliveira (2017); [[#Howard--2017|Howard et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Gattuso--2018|Gattuso et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Cooley--2019|Cooley et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Karani--2020|Karani and Failler (2020)]] ; [[#Lovelock--2020|Lovelock and Reef (2020)]]

|-
| '''Nature-Based Solutions (Nbs); Nature-based solutions are interventions that use the natural functions of healthy ecosystems to protect the environment but also provide numerous economic and social benefits.'''

– '''Contributes to carbon storage and sequestration using individual and clustered trees.'''

| NbS complement and shares common elements with a wide variety of other approaches to building the resilience of social-ecological systems. Policies at national and sub-national level include community-based adaptation, ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction, climate-smart agriculture, and green infrastructure, and often place emphasis on using participatory and inclusive processes and community/stakeholder engagement. '''Examples:''' Mexico and the United Kingdom provide support for NbS in their national biodiversity strategies and action plans some related to water management. UK launched the Green Recovery Challenge Fund to create jobs with a focus on tree planting and the rehabilitation of peatlands.

| [[#Doswald--2011|Doswald and Osti (2011)]] ; [[#Secretariat%20of%20the%20Convention%20on%20Biological%20Diversity--2019|Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2019)]] ; Ihobe – Environmental Management Agency (2017); [[#Zwierzchowska--2019|Zwierzchowska et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Seddon--2020|Seddon et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Choi--2021|Choi et al. (2021)]] ; [[#OECD--2021b|OECD (2021b)]]

|-
| '''Ecosystem-based Adaptation (Eba); use biodiversity and ecosystem services to help people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change, aiming to maintain and increase the resilience and reduce the vulnerability of ecosystems and people.'''

– '''Contributes to carbon storage and sequestration.'''

| EbA involves the conservation, sustainable management and restoration of ecosystems, such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, mangroves or coral reefs to reduce the harmful impacts of climate hazards including shifting patterns or levels of rainfall, changes in maximum and minimum temperatures, stronger storms, and increasingly variable climatic conditions. '''Examples:''' some NDCs include EbA and NbS harmonising national policies (for example: National Adaptation Plan) with other national climate and development policy processes, such as: water resources management plan, disaster risk reduction strategies, land planning codes.

| IPBES (2019); [[#Doswald--2014|Doswald et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Secretariat%20of%20the%20Convention%20on%20Biological%20Diversity--2009|Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2009)]] ; [[#McAllister--2007|McAllister (2007)]] ; [[#Colls--2009|Colls et al. (2009)]] ; [[#Rubio--2017|Rubio (2017)]] ; [[#Raymond--2017|Raymond et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Duarte--2017|Duarte (2017)]] ; [[#Gattuso--2018|Gattuso et al. (2018)]]

|-
| '''Urban Greening; urban forestry, planting in road reserves and tree planting along main streets.'''

– '''Contributes to carbon storage and sequestration.'''

– '''Energy use reduction.'''

| Urban afforestation and reforestation produce cooling effect and water retention while helping to reducing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Green walls and rooftops increase energy efficiency of buildings and decrease water runoff and provide insulation for the buildings. '''Examples:''' Wellington City Council and other entities must comply with the New Zealand Emission Trading System regulatory framework that provides guidance and requirements of climate change planning and implementation for both mitigation and adaptation (M&amp;A).

| [[#Santamouris--2014|Santamouris (2014)]] ; [[#Sharifi--2016|Sharifi and Yamagata (2016)]] ; [[#Grafakos--2018|Grafakos et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Pasimeni--2019|Pasimeni et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Anderson--2016|Anderson et al. (2016)]]

|-
| '''Climate adaptation plans at city level; sub-national policies that would lead to carbon reduction to support climate mitigation. Contribution to mitigation:'''

– '''Carbon storage and sequestration.'''

– '''Energy use reduction.'''

– '''Renewable energy.'''

| Cities with Climate Actions Plans include urban spatial planning and capacity-building initiatives. Some cities with adaptation and mitigation combined climate change action plans are: Bangkok, Chicago, Montevideo, Wellington, Durban, Paris, Mexico City, and Melaka. And cities with A&amp;M actions are: Los Angeles, Vancouver, Barcelona, London, Accra, Santiago de Chile, Bogota, Curitiba, and other.

'''Co-benefits generated by climate actions at cities''' : heat stress reduction; water scarcity, stormwater and flood management; air quality improvement, human health and well-being, aesthetic/amenity, recreation/tourism, environmental justice, real estate value, food production, green jobs opportunities.

| [[#Garcetti--2019|Garcetti (2019)]] ; [[#Horne--2020|Horne (2020)]] ; [[#Barcelona%20City%20Council--2018|Barcelona City Council (2018)]] ; [[#Greater%20London%20Authority--2018|Greater London Authority (2018)]] ; [[#Accra%20Metropolitan%20Assembly--2020|Accra Metropolitan Assembly (2020)]] ; [[#Choi--2021|Choi et al. (2021)]] ; [[#Grafakos--2019|Grafakos et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Nakano--2017|Nakano et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Peng--2018|Peng and Bai (2018)]] ; [[#Zen--2019|Zen et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Bai--2018|Bai et al. (2018)]]

|-
| colspan="3"| '''Mitigation that contributes to adaptation'''

|-
| '''Green Infrastructure; policies to support the design and implementation of a hybrid network of natural, semi-natural, and engineered features within, around, and beyond urban areas at all scales, to provide multiple ecosystem services and benefits.'''

– '''Carbon storage and sequestration.'''

– '''Reduced energy consumption.'''

| Adaptation benefits: flood management, heat stress reduction individually, or jointly, coastal protection, water scarcity management, groundwater resources, ecosystem resilience improvement, air quality, water supply, flood control, water quality improvement, groundwater recharge. Social co-benefits: aesthetic, recreation, environmental education, improved human health/well-being, social cohesion, and poverty reduction. Policy examples: national building code guidelines, flood safety standards, local land-use plans, local building codes, integrated water management for flood control.

| [[#Atchison--2019|Atchison (2019)]] ; [[#Conger--2019|Conger and Chang (2019)]] ; [[#Schoonees--2019|Schoonees et al. (2019)]] ; [[#De%20la%20Sota--2019|De la Sota et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Choi--2021|Choi et al. (2021)]] ; [[#Zwierzchowska--2019|Zwierzchowska et al. (2019)]]

|-
| '''REDD+ Strategies; an incentive for developing countries to increase carbon sinks, to protect their forest resources and coastal wetlands. Mostly are national strategies led by the state with contribution of international donors.'''

– '''Contributes to carbon storage and sequestration.'''

– '''Re''' '''newable energy.'''

| REDD+ strategies aim to generate social benefits such as poverty reduction, and ecological services such as water supply, water quality enhancement, conserves soil and water by reducing erosion. For example, indigenous communities of Socio Bosque in Ecuador have sustained livelihoods and maintaining ties to land, place, space, and ''cosmovision'' . While in Cameroon, upfront contextual inequities with respect to technical capabilities, power, gender, level of education, and wealth have been barriers to individuals’ likelihood of participating in and benefiting from the projects.

| [[#McBurney--2021|McBurney (2021)]] ; [[#Tegegne--2021|Tegegne et al. (2021)]] ; [[#Anderson--2016|Anderson et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Busch--2011|Busch et al. (2011)]] ; [[#Bushley--2014|Bushley (2014)]] ; [[#Dickson--2012|Dickson and Kapos (2012)]] ; [[#Froese--2019|Froese and Schilling (2019)]] ; [[#Gebara--2014|Gebara et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Pham--2014|Pham et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Jodoin--2017|Jodoin (2017)]]

|-
| '''Household energy-efficiency and renewable energy measures; energy policies may improve socio-economic development.'''

– '''Energy use reduction.'''

| Energy Efficiency (EE) emerges as a feasible and sustainable solution in Latin America, to minimise energy consumption, increase competitiveness levels and reduce carbon footprint. Achieving high levels of EE in the building sector requires new policies and strengthening their legal framework. Microenterprise development contributes to poverty reductions as renewable energy stimulate local and national economies.

| [[#Chan--2017|Chan et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Silvero--2019|Silvero et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Zabaloy--2019|Zabaloy et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Alves--2020|Alves et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Nyiwul--2019|Nyiwul (2019)]] ; [[#Dal%20Maso--2020|Dal Maso et al. (2020)]]

|-
| colspan="3"| '''Sustainability first: holistic approaches'''

|-
| '''Integrated community sustainability plans.'''

| Climate change mitigation and adaptation are embedded in a plan to improve affordability, biodiversity, public health, and other aspects of communities.

| [[#Burch--2014|Burch et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Shaw--2014|Shaw et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Stuart--2016|Stuart et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Dale--2020|Dale et al. (2020)]]

|-
| '''Inclusive future visioning using social-ecological systems or socio-technical systems thinking.'''

| Participatory processes that highlight the cultural and social dimensions of climate change responses and synergies/trade-offs between priorities rather than an exclusive focus on technical aspects of solutions.

| [[#Gillard--2016|Gillard et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Krzywoszynska--2016|Krzywoszynska et al. (2016)]]

|-
| '''Climate Resilience Cities; integrating New Urban Agenda (NUA), SDGs, climate actions for A&amp;M, and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) for local and sub-national governments, and DRR within a multi-hazard approach based on Sendai Framework.'''

| Resilient cities are including SDGs, targets, A&amp;M options and DRR to build a resilient plan for urban planning, health, life quality and jobs creation.

Climate mitigation and sustainable energy actions adopted at the local level are interconnected. For instance, cities with Sustainable Energy and Climate Action Plan, which required the establishment of a baseline emission inventory and the adoption of policy measures, are already showing a tangible achievement regarding sustainable goals.

| [[#Barcelona%20City%20Council--2018|Barcelona City Council (2018)]] ; [[#Garcetti--2019|Garcetti (2019)]] ; [[#Accra%20Metropolitan%20Assembly--2020|Accra Metropolitan Assembly (2020)]] ; [[#Blok--2016|Blok 2016]] ; [[#Giampieri--2019|Giampieri et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Gomez%20Echeverri--2018|Gomez Echeverri (2018)]] ; [[#Long--2019|Long and Rice (2019)]] ; [[#Pasimeni--2019|Pasimeni et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Romero-Lankao--2016|Romero-Lankao et al. (2016)]]

|-
| colspan="3"| '''Trade-offs'''

|-
| '''Land-use strategies; for mitigation or adaptation considered in isolation, may cause a conflict in land planning.'''

– '''Carbon storage and sequestration.'''

– '''Energy use reduction.'''

– '''Renewable energy.'''

| Increasing density of land use, land-use mix and transit connectivity could increase climate stress and reduce green open spaces. It may increase the urban heat island impacting human health, and expose population to coastal inundation. Some of the policies and strategies to minimise this are: land-use planning, zoning, land-use permits, mobilising private finance in the protection of watersheds, integrated coastal zone management, flood safety standards, and other. More assessment is needed prior to new land use to reduce or prevent actions which negatively alter ecosystem services and environmental justice.

| [[#O’Donnell--2019|O’Donnell (2019)]] ; [[#Bush--2019|Bush and Doyon (2019)]] ; [[#Grafakos--2019|Grafakos et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Landauer--2015|Landauer et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Viguié--2012|Viguié and Hallegatte (2012)]] ; [[#Floater--2016|Floater et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Xu--2019|Xu et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Landauer--2019|Landauer et al. (2019)]]

|-
| '''Low-carbon, net zero and climate change resilient building codes that fail to account for affordability.'''

– '''Energy reduction.'''

– '''Renewable energy.'''

| Low-carbon or net zero emissions have multi-objective strategies, integrated policies, regulations, and actions at the national and sub-national levels. Trade-offs may be related to policy mechanisms that must be implemented comprehensively, not individually. However, different administrative levels and institutions may create a barrier to inter-sectoral coordination. For example: ‘Greening’ programmes may produce positive mitigation and adaptation outcomes but may also accelerate displacement and gentrification at city level.

| [[#Chaker--2021|Chaker et al. (2021)]] ; [[#del%20Río--2017|del Río and Cerdá (2017)]] ; [[#Choi--2021|Choi et al. (2021)]] ; [[#Papadis--2020|Papadis and Tsatsaronis (2020)]] ; [[#Wolch--2014|Wolch et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Garcia-Lamarca--2021|Garcia-Lamarca et al. (2021)]] ; [[#Haase--2017|Haase et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Sharifi--2020|Sharifi (2020)]] ; [[#Viguié--2012|Viguié and Hallegatte (2012)]] ; [[#del%20Río--2014|del Río (2014)]]

|}

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==== 13.8.3.1 Governing the Linkages Between Mitigation and Adaptation at the Local, Regional, and Global Scales ====

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International policy frameworks, such as the 2015 Paris Agreement, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Disk Reduction, and the New Urban Agenda for sustainable urban systems, provide an integrated approach for both adaptation and mitigation, while promoting sustainable development and climate resilience across scales (from global, regional, to local government actions ( ''robust evidence'' , ''high agreement'' ) ( [[#Duguma--2014b|Duguma et al. 2014b]] ; [[#Heidrich--2016|Heidrich et al. 2016]] ; [[#Di%20Gregorio--2017|Di Gregorio et al. 2017]] ; [[#Locatelli--2017|Locatelli et al. 2017]] ; [[#Nachmany--2018|Nachmany and Setzer 2018]] ; [[#Mills‐Novoa--2019|Mills‐Novoa and Liverman 2019]] ). Even so, the specific ways that these linkages are governed vary widely depending on institutional and jurisdictional scale, competing policy priorities, and available capacity ( [[#Landauer--2019|Landauer et al. 2019]] ).

Supranational levels of action such as the EU climate change policy have influenced the development and implementation of Climate Change Action Plans (CCAPs) at the sub-national level ( [[#Heidrich--2016|Heidrich et al. 2016]] ; [[#Villarroel%20Walker--2017|Villarroel Walker et al. 2017]] ; [[#Reckien--2018|Reckien et al. 2018]] ). While adaptation is gaining prominence and is increasingly included in the NDCs of EU nations, the implementation of adaptation and mitigation by EU states are at different stages ( [[#Fleig--2017|Fleig et al. 2017]] ). [[#Fleig--2017|Fleig et al. (2017)]] found that all EU states, with the exception of Hungary, have adopted a framework of laws tackling mitigation and adaptation to climate change. However, an assessment of climate legislation in Europe pointed out that there has been little coordination between mitigation and adaptation, and that implementation varies according to different national conditions ( [[#Nachmany--2015|Nachmany et al. 2015]] ). More recently, however, integrated adaptation/mitigation plans have been prepared in Europe under the Covenant of Mayors, in which synergies and trade-offs can be better revealed and assessed ( [[#Bertoldi--2020|Bertoldi et al. 2020]] ).

Local governments and cities are increasingly emerging as important climate change actors ( [[#Gordon--2015|Gordon and Acuto 2015]] ) ( [[#13.5|Section 13.5]] ). While cities and local governments are developing Climate Change Action Plans (CCAPs), plans that explicitly integrate the design and implementation of adaptation and mitigation are a minor percentage, with few cities establishing inter-relationships between them ( [[#Nordic%20Council%20of%20Ministers--2017|Nordic Council of Ministers 2017]] ; [[#Grafakos--2018|Grafakos et al. 2018]] ). Compared to national climate governance, local governments are more likely to develop and advance climate policies, generating socio-economic or environmental co-benefits, and improve communities’ quality of life ( [[#Gill--2007|Gill et al. 2007]] ; [[#Bowen--2014|Bowen et al. 2014]] ; [[#Duguma--2014b|Duguma et al. 2014b]] ; [[#Mayrhofer--2016|Mayrhofer and Gupta 2016]] ; [[#Deng--2017|Deng et al. 2017]] ; [[#Hennessey--2017|Hennessey et al. 2017]] ). There may be a disconnect, however, between the responsibility that a particular jurisdiction has over mitigation and adaptation (city officials, for instance) and the scale of resources or capacities that they have available to bring to bear on the problem (regional to national provision of energy and transport) ( [[#Di%20Gregorio--2019|Di Gregorio et al. 2019]] ; [[#Dale--2020|Dale et al. 2020]] ).

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