Editing IPCC:AR6/SROCC/SPM (section)

==== Observed Impacts on People and Ecosystem Services ====

'''A.7. Since the mid-20th century, the shrinking cryosphere in the Arctic and high-mountain areas has led to predominantly negative impacts on food security, water resources, water quality, livelihoods, health and well-being, infrastructure, transportation, tourism and recreation, as well as culture of human societies, particularly for Indigenous peoples ( ''high confidence'' ). Costs and benefits have been unequally distributed across populations and regions. Adaptation efforts have benefited from the inclusion of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge ( ''high confidence'' ). {1.1, 1.5, 1.6.2, 2.3, 2.4, 3.4, 3.5, Figure SPM.2} '''

'''A.7.1''' [[File:7dd9d5f1c0e829eec2bf341c5154813e SPM-Icon-xxoo.png]] Food and water security have been negatively impacted by changes in snow cover, lake and river ice, and permafrost in many Arctic regions ( ''high confidence'' ). These changes have disrupted access to, and food availability within, herding, hunting, fishing, and gathering areas, harming the livelihoods and cultural identity of Arctic residents including Indigenous populations ( ''high confidence'' ). Glacier retreat and snow cover changes have contributed to localized declines in agricultural yields in some high mountain regions, including Hindu Kush Himalaya and the tropical Andes ( ''medium confidence'' ). {2.3.1, 2.3.7, Box 2.4, 3.4.1, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 3.5.2, Figure SPM.2}

'''A.7.2''' [[File:7dd9d5f1c0e829eec2bf341c5154813e SPM-Icon-xxoo.png]] In the Arctic, negative impacts of cryosphere change on human health have included increased risk of food- and waterborne diseases, malnutrition, injury, and mental health challenges especially among Indigenous peoples ( ''high confidence'' ). In some high-mountain areas, water quality has been affected by contaminants, particularly mercury, released from melting glaciers and thawing permafrost ( ''medium confidence'' ). Health-related adaptation efforts in the Arctic range from local to international in scale, and successes have been underpinned by Indigenous knowledge ( ''high confidence'' ). {1.8, Cross-Chapter Box 4 in Chapter 1, 2.3.1, 3.4.3}

'''A.7.3''' [[File:219efacb8ac4464b2e76514065b22cc7 SPM-Icon-oxoo.png]] Arctic residents, especially Indigenous peoples, have adjusted the timing of activities to respond to changes in seasonality and safety of land, ice, and snow travel conditions. Municipalities and industry are beginning to address infrastructure failures associated with flooding and thawing permafrost and some coastal communities have planned for relocation ( ''high confidence'' ). Limited funding, skills, capacity, and institutional support to engage meaningfully in planning processes have challenged adaptation ( ''high confidence'' ). {3.5.2, 3.5.4, Cross-Chapter Box 9} ''' '''

'''A.7.4''' [[File:37d9ca019c63e0a7a080aaca0b2016e4 SPM-Icon-oxox.png]] Summertime Arctic ship-based transportation (including tourism) increased over the past two decades concurrent with sea ice reductions ( ''high confidence'' ). This has implications for global trade and economies linked to traditional shipping corridors, and poses risks to Arctic marine ecosystems and coastal communities ( ''high confidence'' ), such as from invasive species and local pollution. {3.2.1, 3.2.4, 3.5.4, 5.4.2, Figure SPM.2}

'''A.7.5''' [[File:4d299f9da92412c8279a7422468e6e12 SPM-Icon-xooo.png]] In past decades, exposure of people and infrastructure to natural hazards has increased due to growing population, tourism and socioeconomic development ( ''high confidence).'' Some disasters have been linked to changes in the cryosphere, for example in the Andes, high mountain Asia, Caucasus and European Alps ( ''medium confidence'' ). {2.3.2, Figure SPM.2} ''' '''

'''A.7.6''' [[File:4d299f9da92412c8279a7422468e6e12 SPM-Icon-xooo.png]] Changes in snow and glaciers have changed the amount and seasonality of runoff and water resources in snow dominated and glacier-fed river basins ( ''very high confidence'' ). Hydropower facilities have experienced changes in seasonality and both increases and decreases in water input from high mountain areas, for example, in central Europe, Iceland, Western USA/Canada, and tropical Andes ( ''medium confidence'' ). However, there is only ''limited evidence'' of resulting impacts on operations and energy production. {SPM B.1.4, 2.3.1}

'''A.7.7''' [[File:4d299f9da92412c8279a7422468e6e12 SPM-Icon-xooo.png]] High mountain aesthetic and cultural aspects have been negatively impacted by glacier and snow cover decline (e.g. in the Himalaya, East Africa, the tropical Andes) ( ''medium confidence'' ). Tourism and recreation, including ski and glacier tourism, hiking, and mountaineering, have also been negatively impacted in many mountain regions ( ''medium confidence'' ) ''.'' In some places, artificial snowmaking has reduced negative impacts on ski tourism ( ''medium confidence'' ). {2.3.5, 2.3.6, Figure SPM.2}

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'''A.8. Changes in the ocean have impacted marine ecosystems and ecosystem services with regionally diverse outcomes, challenging their governance ( ''high confidence'' ). Both positive and negative impacts result for food security through fisheries ( ''medium confidence'' ), local cultures and livelihoods ( ''medium confidence'' ), and tourism and recreation ( ''medium confidence'' ). The impacts on ecosystem services have negative consequences for health and well-being ( ''medium confidence'' ), and for Indigenous peoples and local communities dependent on fisheries ( ''high confidence'' ). {1.1, 1.5, 3.2.1, 5.4.1, 5.4.2, Figure SPM.2}'''

'''A.8.1''' [[File:37d9ca019c63e0a7a080aaca0b2016e4 SPM-Icon-oxox.png]] Warming-induced changes in the spatial distribution and abundance of some fish and shellfish stocks have had positive and negative impacts on catches, economic benefits, livelihoods, and local culture ( ''high confidence'' ). There are negative consequences for Indigenous peoples and local communities that are dependent on fisheries ( ''high confidence'' ). Shifts in species distributions and abundance has challenged international and national ocean and fisheries governance, including in the Arctic, North Atlantic and Pacific, in terms of regulating fishing to secure ecosystem integrity and sharing of resources between fishing entities ( ''high confidence'' ). {3.2.4, 3.5.3, 5.4.2, 5.5.2, Figure SPM.2}

'''A.8.2''' [[File:c2dab058529f43e723961cf4dccd97c2 SPM-Icon-ooxx.png]] Harmful algal blooms display range expansion and increased frequency in coastal areas since the 1980s in response to both climatic and non-climatic drivers such as increased riverine nutrients run-off ( ''high confidence'' ). The observed trends in harmful algal blooms are attributed partly to the effects of ocean warming, marine heatwaves, oxygen loss, eutrophication and pollution ( ''high confidence'' ). Harmful algal blooms have had negative impacts on food security, tourism, local economy, and human health ( ''high confidence'' ). The human communities who are more vulnerable to these biological hazards are those in areas without sustained monitoring programs and dedicated early warning systems for harmful algal blooms ( ''medium confidence'' ). {Box 5.4, 5.4.2, 6.4.2}

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'''A.9. Coastal communities are exposed to multiple climate-related hazards, including tropical cyclones, extreme sea levels and flooding, marine heatwaves, sea ice loss, and permafrost thaw ( ''high confidence'' ). A diversity of responses has been implemented worldwide, mostly after extreme events, but also some in anticipation of future sea level rise, e.g., in the case of large infrastructure. {3.2.4, 3.4.3, 4.3.2, 4.3.3, 4.3.4, 4.4.2, 5.4.2, 6.2, 6.4.2, 6.8, Box 6.1, Cross Chapter Box 9, Figure SPM.5}'''

'''A.9.1''' [[File:3dcc514bf2acf9f1b7861bf877ef79a9 SPM-Icon-ooxo.png]] Attribution of current coastal impacts on people to sea level rise remains difficult in most locations since impacts were exacerbated by human-induced non-climatic drivers, such as land subsidence (e.g., groundwater extraction), pollution, habitat degradation, reef and sand mining ( ''high confidence'' ). {4.3.2, 4.3.3}

'''A.9.2''' [[File:f83f15a29ea2d8a2d2ddc3ce832f4aaa SPM-Icon-oxxo.png]] Coastal protection through hard measures, such as dikes, seawalls, and surge barriers, is widespread in many coastal cities and deltas. Ecosystem-based and hybrid approaches combining ecosystems and built infrastructure are becoming more popular worldwide. Coastal advance, which refers to the creation of new land by building seawards (e.g., land reclamation), has a long history in most areas where there are dense coastal populations and a shortage of land. Coastal retreat, which refers to the removal of human occupation of coastal areas, is also observed, but is generally restricted to small human communities or occurs to create coastal wetland habitat. The effectiveness of the responses to sea level rise are assessed in Figure SPM.5. {3.5.3, 4.3.3, 4.4.2, 6.3.3, 6.9.1, Cross-Chapter Box 9}

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