Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-3 (section)

=== 3.5.6 Cultural Services ===

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Cultural services provided by ocean and coastal ecosystems help maintain psychological well-being, cultural development, human identities, educational opportunities and reserves that could support development of future goods or activities (Table 3.25). Most recent studies of ocean and coastal cultural services simply detail local benefits using replicable methods (e.g., [[#Drakou--2018|Drakou et al., 2018]] ; [[#Folkersen--2018|Folkersen, 2018]] ; [[#Förster--2019|Förster et al., 2019]] ; [[#Lau--2019|Lau et al., 2019]] ; [[#Pouso--2019|Pouso et al., 2019]] ; [[#Weitzman--2019|Weitzman, 2019]] ; [[#Yang--2019|Yang et al., 2019]] ), focusing on diverse ocean and coastal environments and ecosystems ( [[#Jobstvogt--2014|Jobstvogt et al., 2014]] ; [[#Balzan--2018|Balzan et al., 2018]] ; [[#Drakou--2018|Drakou et al., 2018]] ; [[#Ingram--2018|Ingram et al., 2018]] ; [[#Pouso--2018|Pouso et al., 2018]] ; [[#Zapata--2018|Zapata et al., 2018]] ; [[#Ghermandi--2019|Ghermandi et al., 2019]] ; [[#Pouso--2019|Pouso et al., 2019]] ; [[#Tanner--2019|Tanner et al., 2019]] ; [[#Turner--2019|Turner et al., 2019]] ; [[#Ortíz%20Liñán--2021|Ortíz Liñán and Vázquez Solís, 2021]] ). Cultural ecosystem services may directly benefit from marine development activities, such as marine aquaculture (e.g., [[#Alleway--2018|Alleway et al., 2018]] ), and indirectly benefit from marine activities that increase biodiversity (e.g., [[#Causon--2018|Causon and Gill, 2018]] ). Cultural services are generally quantified using interviews and revealed-preference or stated-preference valuation ( [[#National%20Research%20Council--2005|National Research Council, 2005]] ; [[#Sangha--2019|Sangha et al., 2019]] ), but people often are especially reluctant to evaluate cultural ecosystem services in monetary terms, given the spiritual and community linkages to these services ( [[#Oleson--2018|Oleson et al., 2018]] ).

Additional evidence since previous assessments (Table 3.26) confirms that climate-change impacts on ocean and coastal cultural ecosystem services have already disrupted people’s place-based emotional attachments and cultural activities ( ''limited evidence, high agreement'' ) (Figure 3.22). Bleaching and mortality of corals in the Great Barrier Reef have induced measurable ‘reef grief’, a type of solastalgia, among reef visitors and researchers ( [[#Conroy--2019|Conroy, 2019]] ; [[#Curnock--2019|Curnock et al., 2019]] ; [[#Marshall--2019|Marshall et al., 2019]] ). The mental health of people in Tuvalu ( [[#Gibson--2020|Gibson et al., 2020]] ), Alaska ( [[#Allen--2020|Allen, 2020]] ) and Honduras ( [[#Kent--2020|Kent and Brondo, 2020]] ) have suffered from both the experience of climate impacts on ocean and coastal ecosystems (e.g., SLR and changes in fisheries and wildlife), and the anticipation of more in the future. The climate-associated MHWs and harmful algal bloom events in 2014–2016 in the US Pacific Northwest ( [[#Moore--2019|Moore et al., 2019]] ) prevented seasonal razor clam harvests culturally important to Indigenous Peoples and the local community ( [[#3.5.5.3|Section 3.5.5.3]] ; [[#Crosman--2019|Crosman et al., 2019]] ). Sea level rise and storm-driven coastal erosion endanger coastal archaeological and heritage sites around the world ( ''very high confidence'' ) (Hoque and Hoque, 2008; [[#Carmichael--2018|Carmichael et al., 2018]] ; [[#Reimann--2018|Reimann et al., 2018]] ; [[#Elliott--2019|Elliott and Williams, 2019]] ; [[#Ravanelli--2019|Ravanelli et al., 2019]] ; [[#Anzidei--2020|Anzidei et al., 2020]] ; [[#Chemeli--2020|Chemeli et al., 2020]] ; [[#García%20Sánchez--2020|García Sánchez et al., 2020]] ; [[#Harkin--2020|Harkin et al., 2020]] ; [[#Hil--2020|Hil, 2020]] ; [[#Rivera-Collazo--2020|Rivera-Collazo, 2020]] ).

Disruptions in ocean and coastal ecosystem services partly attributable to climate change have also caused economic losses ( ''limited evidence, high agreement'' ). Water-quality deterioration over 24 years in a temperate bay in the USA due to nutrient enrichment and warming caused 0.08–0.67 million USD per decade in lost recreational shellfish revenues ( [[#Luk--2019|Luk et al., 2019]] ). In southwestern Florida, where nutrient enrichment, lake hydrology, and rainfall conditions control cyanobacterial HAB formation ( [[#Havens--2019|Havens et al., 2019]] ), toxic HAB events deterred visitors and recreation, leading to lodging and restaurant revenue losses ( [[#Bechard--2020|Bechard, 2020]] ), decreased domestic and international arrivals and overall visitor spending (a 99 million USD loss from August to October 2018; [[#Scanlon--2019|Scanlon, 2019]] ), and lost recreational spending from loss of boat-ramp access (a 3 million USD economic loss from June to September 2018; [[#Alvarez--2019|Alvarez et al., 2019]] ). In Cornwall, England, HABs from 2009 to 2016 disrupted residents’ sense of place, identity and well-being by interrupting recreational and economic activities, and by creating feelings of uncertainty and unease around the safety or dependability of future ocean-related activities ( [[#Willis--2018|Willis et al., 2018]] ). Increasingly abundant ''Sargassum'' spp. floating macroalgae from the central Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, whose proliferation has been attributed to high sea surface temperatures and nutrient enrichment ( [[#Wang--2019a|Wang et al., 2019a]] ), has substantially disrupted beach tourism in the Caribbean and Mexico and imposes millions of dollars of clean-up costs annually on affected beaches ( [[#Milledge--2016|Milledge and Harvey, 2016]] ).

Observed disruption of ocean and coastal cultural services by climate impacts, plus increasingly severe and widespread projected climate-change impacts on ocean and coastal ecosystems, imply that the risk to cultural ecosystem services will remain constant or even increase ( ''medium confidence'' ) (Figure 3.22; Table 3.26). Recent studies assert that cultural ecosystem services are at risk from climate change ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Singh--2019a|Singh et al., 2019a]] ; [[#Koenigstein--2020|Koenigstein, 2020]] ). However, ''limited evidence'' and complex social–ecological interactions (e.g., [[#Ingram--2018|Ingram et al., 2018]] ) challenge development of specific projections. For instance, the little auk ( ''Alle alle'' ) in the North Water Polynya is traditionally harvested by Indigenous Inughuit for food and community-wide celebrations and seasonal activities, but harvests are threatened to an undetermined degree as the seabird competes for food with recovering bowhead whale ( ''Balaena mysticetus'' ) populations and northward range shifts of capelin ( ''Mallotus villosus'' ) due to warming ( [[#Mosbech--2018|Mosbech et al., 2018]] ). [[#3.6|Section 3.6]] assesses the cultural implications of implemented human adaptations.

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