Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-13 (section)

==== 13.8.1.4 Cultural and Natural Heritage ====

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Climate change poses a serious threat to the preservation of cultural heritage in Europe, both tangible and intangible ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Haugen--2011|Haugen and Mattsson, 2011]] ; [[#Daire--2012|Daire et al., 2012]] ; [[#Dupont--2013|Dupont and Van Eetvelde, 2013]] ; [[#Macalister--2015|Macalister, 2015]] ; [[#Phillips--2015|Phillips, 2015]] ; [[#Fatorić--2017|Fatorić and Seekamp, 2017]] ; [[#Graham--2017|Graham et al., 2017]] ; [[#Carroll--2018|Carroll and Aarrevaara, 2018]] ; [[#Sesana--2018|Sesana et al., 2018]] ; Iosub et al., 2019; [[#Daly--2020|Daly et al., 2020]] ). At higher GWL, building exteriors and valuable indoor collections become at risk ( [[#Leissner--2015|Leissner et al., 2015]] ). Coastal heritage, such as along the North Sea and Mediterranean, are under water-related threats (see Box 13.1; Cross-Chapter Paper 4; [[#Reimann--2018b|Reimann et al., 2018b]] ; [[#Walsh--2018|Walsh, 2018]] ; [[#Harkin--2020|Harkin et al., 2020]] ).

Disappearing cultural heritage can reduce incomes due to loss of tourism ( [[#Hall--2016|Hall et al., 2016]] ), as exemplified by glacier retreat, for example, in the Swiss Alps and Greenland ( [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/13#CCP5.3.2.4 CCP5.3.2.4] ; [[#Bjorst--2015|Bjorst and Ren, 2015]] ; [[#Bosson--2019|Bosson et al., 2019]] ). Glacier retreat can create a sense of discomfort, loss of sense of place, displacement and anxiety in people ( [[#13.7|Section 13.7]] ; [[#Albrecht--2007|Albrecht et al., 2007]] ; [[#Brugger--2013|Brugger et al., 2013]] ; [[#Allison--2015|Allison, 2015]] ; [[#Jurt--2015|Jurt et al., 2015]] ). Intangible cultural heritage, such as place names, and lost traditional practices can also be affected ( [[#Mustonen--2018|Mustonen, 2018]] ; [[#Dastgerdi--2019|Dastgerdi et al., 2019]] ).

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'''Box 13.2 | Sámi Reindeer Herding in Sweden'''
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Reindeer ( ''Rangifer tarandus'' ) are keystone species in northern landscapes ( [[#Vors--2009|Vors and Boyce, 2009]] ). Reindeer herding is a traditional, semi-nomadic livelihood of the Sámi. Reindeer migrate between seasonal pastures that cover 55% of Sweden and are simultaneously used for multiple other purposes ( [[#Sandström--2016|Sandström et al., 2016]] ). Reindeer herding is recognised as an indigenous right, protected by the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, several UN conventions and through Swedish national legislation.

Temperatures in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions have increased on average by 2°C over the past 30 years ( ''very high confidence'' ) ( [[#Ranasinghe--2021|Ranasinghe et al., 2021]] ). Future warming is expected to further increase winter precipitation ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Ranasinghe--2021|Ranasinghe et al., 2021]] ) and rain-on-snow events, creating a hard ice crust on the snow after refreezing ( [[#Bokhorst--2016|Bokhorst et al., 2016]] ; [[#Rasmus--2018|Rasmus et al., 2018]] ).

The documented and projected impacts on reindeer are complex and varied. Warming and CO 2 increase result in higher plant productivity ( [[#13.3|Section 13.3]] ), changes in plant community composition and higher parasite harassment; unstable ice conditions affect migration; extreme weather conditions during critical winter months, more frequent forest fires and changes in plant community composition reduce pasture quality ( ''medium confidence'' ) (see Figure Box 13.2.1; [[#Mallory--2018|Mallory and Boyce, 2018]] ). High snow depth and rain-on-snow events impede reindeer access to ground lichen in winter and delay spring green-up during the critical calving period; both cause malnutrition and negative impacts on reindeer health, mortality and reproductive success ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Hansen--2014|Hansen et al., 2014]] ; [[#Forbes--2016|Forbes et al., 2016]] ; [[#Mallory--2018|Mallory and Boyce, 2018]] ). Lower slaughter weights and increased mortality reduce the income of herders ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Tyler--2007|Tyler et al., 2007]] ; [[#Helle--2008|Helle and Kojola, 2008]] ).

Reindeer herders already autonomously adapt to changing conditions through flexible use of pastures and supplementary feeding ( ''high confidence'' ), reducing and thereby hiding some of the negative impacts of climate change ( [[#Uboni--2016|Uboni et al., 2016]] ). However, adaptive herding practices have themselves added significant burden through increased workload, costs and stress ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Furberg--2011|Furberg et al., 2011]] ; [[#Löf--2013|Löf, 2013]] ; Rosqvist et al., 2021). Supplementary feeding increases the risk of infectious diseases and implies culturally undesirable herding practices ( ''low confidence'' ) ( [[#Lawrence--2019|Lawrence and Kløcker Larsen, 2019]] ; [[#Tryland--2019|Tryland et al., 2019]] ).

Rapid land-use change reduces the ability to adapt ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Tyler--2010|Tyler, 2010]] ; [[#Löf--2013|Löf, 2013]] ). National and EU policies expand land uses for mining, wind energy and bioeconomy in the area, causing loss, fragmentation and degradation of pastures, and increasing human disturbance to animals ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Kivinen--2012|Kivinen et al., 2012]] ; [[#Skarin--2014|Skarin and Åhman, 2014]] ; [[#Kivinen--2015|Kivinen, 2015]] ; [[#Skarin--2015|Skarin et al., 2015]] ; [[#Sandström--2016|Sandström et al., 2016]] ; [[#Beland%20Lindahl--2017|Beland Lindahl et al., 2017]] ; [[#Österlin--2020|Österlin and Raitio, 2020]] ). The cumulative impacts of these land uses on pastures are not adequately assessed or recognised in land-use planning ( [[#Kløcker%20Larsen--2017|Kløcker Larsen et al., 2017]] ; [[#Kløcker%20Larsen--2018|Kløcker Larsen et al., 2018]] ). Herding communities face strong barriers to protecting their rights and halting further degradation of pastures ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Allard--2018|Allard, 2018]] ; [[#Kløcker%20Larsen--2019|Kløcker Larsen and Raitio, 2019]] ; [[#Raitio--2020|Raitio et al., 2020]] ). Attempts by herding communities to stop mining projects have led to conflicts with other actors, including racist hate incidences ( [[#Persson--2017|Persson et al., 2017]] ; [[#Beland%20Lindahl--2018|Beland Lindahl et al., 2018]] ). Combined with land-use conflicts, climate impacts cause reduced psycho-social health and increase suicidal thoughts among herders ( ''low confidence'' ) ( [[#Kaiser--2010|Kaiser et al., 2010]] ; [[#Furberg--2011|Furberg et al., 2011]] ).

Reindeer herding is significantly affected by climate change directly and indirectly (Figure Box 13.2.1) ( [[#Pape--2012|Pape and Löffler, 2012]] ; [[#Andersson--2015|Andersson et al., 2015]] ). The cumulative effects of land-use and climate change have already increased vulnerability and reduced the adaptive capacity of reindeer herding to the extent that its long-term sustainability is threatened ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Löf--2013|Löf, 2013]] ; [[#Horstkotte--2014|Horstkotte et al., 2014]] ; [[#Kløcker%20Larsen--2017|Kløcker Larsen et al., 2017]] ).

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'''Figure Box 13.2.1 |''' '''Cumulative impacts of climate and land-use change on reindeer herding as a traditional, semi-nomadic Sámi livelihood''' '''.''' (Table SM13.21)

Maintaining and improving the solution space to adapt reindeer herding is crucial for reducing existing impacts and projected risks of climate and land-use change ( [[#Andersson--2015|Andersson et al., 2015]] ; [[#Turunen--2016|Turunen et al., 2016]] ; [[#AMAP--2017|AMAP, 2017]] ; [[#Hausner--2020|Hausner et al., 2020]] ). Lack of control over land use is the biggest and most urgent threat to the adaptive capacity of reindeer herding and the right of Sámi to their culture ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Pape--2012|Pape and Löffler, 2012]] ; [[#Andersson--2015|Andersson et al., 2015]] ; [[#Kløcker%20Larsen--2019|Kløcker Larsen and Raitio, 2019]] ).

Box 13.2

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