Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-3 (section)

=== 3.6.2 Adaptation Solutions ===

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Adaptation in ocean and coastal ecosystems continues to be informed primarily by theory, as there is still ''limited evidence'' about implemented solutions ( ''high agreement'' ) ( [[#Seddon--2020|Seddon et al., 2020]] ) and their success across regions, especially in low-income nations ( [[#Chausson--2020|Chausson et al., 2020]] ). Adapting to climate change depends on society’s ability and willingness to anticipate the change, recognise its effects, plan to accommodate its consequences ( [[#Ling--2019|Ling and Hobday, 2019]] ; [[#Wilson--2020b|Wilson et al., 2020b]] ) and implement a coordinated portfolio of informed solutions. Here, the complete portfolio of adaptation solutions is assessed using the taxonomy of [[#Abram--2019|Abram et al. (2019)]] : (1) socio-institutional adaptation, (2) built infrastructure and technology, and (3) marine and coastal nature-based solutions (NbS) (Figure 3.23).

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[[File:f7a83a5d5165c1a48b109a75653d5687 IPCC_AR6_WGII_Figure_3_023.png]]

'''Figure 3.23 |''' '''Adaptation solutions for ocean and coastal ecosystems that address climate-change risk in different ocean ecosystems, communities and economic sectors.''' Box colour indicates confidence in the solution’s potential to reduce mid-term risks (based on the amount of evidence and agreement supporting the solutions; see SM3.5.1 for full assessment). The feasibility and effectiveness of each solution (low, medium or high) indicates its ability to support ecosystems and societies as they adapt to climate change impacts, based on Table 3.SM.3.

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==== 3.6.2.1 Socio-Institutional Adaptation ====

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Increasing evidence shows that an effective solution portfolio includes social and institutional adaptation (Figure 3.23, top; Table 3.28). Social adaptation to climate change is already occurring, as people use strategies ranging from accommodating change, to coping, adapting and transforming their livelihoods ( [[#Béné--2018|Béné and Doyen, 2018]] ; [[#Fedele--2019|Fedele et al., 2019]] ; [[#Galappaththi--2019|Galappaththi et al., 2019]] ; [[#Barnes--2020|Barnes et al., 2020]] ; [[#Ojea--2020|Ojea et al., 2020]] ; [[#Green--2021c|Green et al., 2021c]] ). Although management and institutions have major roles in adaptation ( [[#Gaines--2018|Gaines et al., 2018]] ; [[#Barange--2019|Barange, 2019]] ), marine governance is impeded by increasing numbers of often-competing users and uses ( [[#Boyes--2014|Boyes and Elliott, 2014]] ); sector-led, fragmented efforts ( [[#Nunan--2020|Nunan et al., 2020]] ); and a legal framework less clear than those on land ( [[#Crespo--2019|Crespo et al., 2019]] ; [[#Guggisberg--2019|Guggisberg, 2019]] ). Future social responses depend on warming levels and on the institutional, socioeconomic and cultural constructs that allow or limit livelihood changes ( ''medium confidence'' ) (Chapter 18; [[#Galappaththi--2019|Galappaththi et al., 2019]] ; [[#Ford--2020|Ford et al., 2020]] ; [[#Green--2021c|Green et al., 2021c]] ). Both social and institutional transformations are needed to change the structures of power, culture, politics and/or identity associated with marine ecosystems ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-1#1.5.2|Section 1.5.2]] ; [[#Wilson--2020b|Wilson et al., 2020b]] ). Ideally, institutional and social adaptation will work together to sustain knowledge systems and education, enhance participation and social inclusion, facilitate livelihood support and transformational change of dependent coastal communities, provide economic and financial instruments, and include polycentric and multi-level governance of transboundary management ( [[#Fedele--2019|Fedele et al., 2019]] ; [[#Fulton--2019|Fulton et al., 2019]] ).

'''Table 3.28 |''' Assessment of socio-institutional adaptation solutions to reduce mid-term climate impacts in oceans and coastal ecosystems a

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Solution

! Confidence in solution (mid-term potential)

! Contribution to adaptation

! Selected references

! Examples of implementation

|-
| Knowledge diversity

| ''High confidence''

| Consideration of IK and LK systems is beneficial to communities, increases their resilience and is relevant and transferable beyond the local scale.

| [[#Norström--2020|Norström et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Petzold--2020|Petzold et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Gianelli--2021|Gianelli et al. (2021)]] ; [[#Schlingmann--2021|Schlingmann et al. (2021)]]

| Ecotourism ( [[#3.6.3.1.3|Section 3.6.3.1.3]] ), conservation ( [[#3.6.3.2|Section 3.6.3.2.1]] )

|-
| Socially inclusive policies

| ''High confidence''

| Policies that promote participation of a diversity of groups are able to address existing vulnerabilities in coastal communities and promote adaptation and transformational change.

| Brodie [[#Rudolph--2020|Rudolph et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Ford--2020|Ford et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Friedman--2020|Friedman et al. (2020)]]

| Finance ( [[#3.6.3|Section 3.6.3.4.2]] )

|-
| Participation

| ''Medium confidence''

| Participation in decision making and adaptation processes is recommended across a range of different hazards and contexts, and has the potential to improve adaptation outcomes.

| Brodie [[#Rudolph--2020|Rudolph et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Claudet--2020a|Claudet et al. (2020a)]] ; [[#Hügel--2020|Hügel and Davies, 2020]] ); [[#Sumaila--2021|Sumaila et al. (2021)]]

| Fisheries and mariculture ( [[#3.6.3.1.2|Section 3.6.3.1.2]] ), Indigenous Peoples ( [[#3.6.3|Section 3.6.3.4.1]] )

|-
| Livelihood diversification

| ''Medium confidence''

| Livelihood diversification in communities dependent on marine and coastal ecosystems reduces climate risks and confers flexibility to individuals, which is key to adaptive capacity.

| [[#Blanchard--2017|Blanchard et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Cinner--2019|Cinner and Barnes (2019)]] ; [[#Shaffril--2020|Shaffril et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Owen--2020|Owen (2020)]] ; [[#Pinsky--2021|Pinsky (2021)]] ; [[#Taylor--2021|Taylor et al. (2021)]]

| Fisheries and mariculture ( [[#3.6.3.1.2|Section 3.6.3.1.2]] ), coastal communities (Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3), tourism ( [[#3.6.3.1.3|Section 3.6.3.1.3]] )

|-
| Mobility

| ''Medium confidence''

| When individuals are given the choice about mobility, they may elect to use this response to minimise climate risks and benefit their livelihoods.

| [[#Barnett--2018|Barnett and McMichael (2018)]]

| Fisheries and mariculture ( [[#3.6.3.1.2|Section 3.6.3.1.2]] )

|-
| Migration

| ''Low confidence''

| Migration often involves different spatial and temporal scales than mobility. Migration could be considered an adaptation solution for some coastal and island populations in the cases of extreme events, but also as a response to more gradual changes (e.g., coastal erosion from sea level rise).

| [[#Maharjan--2020|Maharjan et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Biswas--2021|Biswas and Mallick (2021)]] ; [[#Zickgraf--2021|Zickgraf (2021)]]

| Coastal livelihoods ( [[#3.6.3.1.1|Section 3.6.3.1.1]] )

|-
| Finance and market mechanisms

| ''High confidence''

| Financial mechanisms and credit provision for marine-dependent livelihoods are effective for overcoming impacts from SLR, extreme events and other climate-induced drivers.

| Shaffril et al. (2017); [[#Dunstan--2018|Dunstan et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Hinkel--2018|Hinkel et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Moser--2019|Moser et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Sainz--2019|Sainz et al. (2019)]] ; Woodruff et al. (2020)

| Economic dimensions ( [[#3.6.3|Section 3.6.3.4.2]] )

|-
| Disaster response programmes

| ''High confidence''

| Disaster response programmes confer resilience to communities and contribute to adaptation, when designed to be inclusive, participatory and adaptive.

| [[#Nurhidayah--2019|Nurhidayah and McIlgorm (2019)]]

| Climate services ( [[#3.6.3|Section 3.6.3.4.3]] ) '','' tourism cruise-ship sector ( [[#3.6.3.1.3|Section 3.6.3.1.3]] )

|-
| Multi-level ocean governance

| ''High confidence''

| The multi-scale nature of ocean and coastal climate-change risk demands adaptation solutions at multiple levels of governance that consider the objectives and perceptions of all stakeholders to support local implementation of broad strategies.

| [[#Miller--2018|Miller et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Gilfillan--2019|Gilfillan (2019)]] ; [[#Holsman--2019|Holsman et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Obura--2021|Obura et al. (2021)]]

| Policy frameworks ( [[#3.6.4.3|Section 3.6.4.3]] )

|-
| Institutional transboundary agreements

| ''Medium confidence''

| Institutional agreements for the management of transboundary marine resources are key for a sustainable future given current impacts on marine species distribution due to climate change.

| [[#Engler--2020|Engler (2020)]] ; [[#Mason--2020|Mason et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Oremus--2020|Oremus et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Melbourne-Thomas--2021|Melbourne-Thomas et al. (2021)]]

| Fisheries ( [[#3.6.3.1.2|Section 3.6.3.1.2]] ; Cross-Chapter Box MOVING SPECIES in Chapter 5)

|}

(a) Confidence is assessed in SM3.5.1. Feasibility and effectiveness are assessed in Figure 3.24.

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==== 3.6.2.2 Built Infrastructure and Technology ====

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Engineering and technology support marine and coastal adaptation (Table 3.29). Built infrastructure includes engineered solutions that protect, accommodate or relocate coastal assets using hard engineering, like seawalls, and soft engineering, such as beach and shore nourishment (Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3). Technological tools include early-warning systems for extreme events ( [[#Bindoff--2019a|Bindoff et al., 2019a]] ; [[#Collins--2019a|Collins et al., 2019a]] ), improved forecast and hindcast models ( [[#Winter--2020|Winter et al., 2020]] ; [[#Davidson--2021|Davidson et al., 2021]] ; [[#Spillman--2021|Spillman and Smith, 2021]] ) and environmental monitoring ( [[#Claudet--2020a|Claudet et al., 2020a]] ; [[#Wilson--2020a|Wilson et al., 2020a]] ; [[#Melbourne-Thomas--2021|Melbourne-Thomas et al., 2021]] ) that support informed decision making ( [[#Tommasi--2017|Tommasi et al., 2017]] ; [[#Rilov--2020|Rilov et al., 2020]] ; A. [[#Maureaud--2021|Maureaud et al., 2021]] ). Emerging adaptation technologies, such as habitat development, active restoration and assisted evolution ( [[#Boström-Einarsson--2020|Boström-Einarsson et al., 2020]] ; [[#Kleypas--2021|Kleypas et al., 2021]] ), intend to accelerate recovery of damaged ecosystems and promote ecological adaptation to climate change ( [[#Jones--2018a|Jones et al., 2018a]] ; [[#Boström-Einarsson--2020|Boström-Einarsson et al., 2020]] ; [[#Kleypas--2021|Kleypas et al., 2021]] ).

'''Table 3.29 |''' Assessment of built infrastructure and technology solutions to reduce mid-term climate impacts in oceans and coastal ecosystems a

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Solution

! Confidence in solution (mid-term potential)

! Contribution to adaptation

! Selected references

! Examples of implementation

|-
| Accommodation and relocation

| ''High confidence''

| Asset modification and relocation of livelihoods to adapt to sea level rise, extreme events and coastal erosion.

| [[#Hanson--2020|Hanson and Nicholls (2020)]] ; [[#Monios--2020|Monios and Wilmsmeier (2020)]] ; [[#Zickgraf--2021|Zickgraf (2021)]]

| Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3, coastal development ( [[#3.6.3.1.1|Section 3.6.3.1.1]] )

|-
| Protection and beach and shore nourishment

| ''Medium confidence''

| Protection of coastal ecosystems with interventions, such as beach and shore nourishment, is a common response to beach erosion around the world, and an alternative to hard protection structures such as seawalls.

| Pinto et al. (2020); [[#de%20Schipper--2021|de Schipper et al. (2021)]] ; [[#Elko--2021|Elko et al. (2021)]]

| Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3, coastal development ( [[#3.6.3.1.1|Section 3.6.3.1.1]] )

|-
| Early-warning systems

| ''High confidence''

| Early-warning systems can support decision making, limit economic losses from extreme events and aid in the enterprise and development of adaptive management systems.

| Bindoff et al. (2019); [[#Collins--2019a|Collins et al. (2019a)]] ; [[#Winter--2020|Winter et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Neußner--2021|Neußner (2021)]]

| Coastal development ( [[#3.6.3.1.1|Section 3.6.3.1.1]] ), human health ( [[#3.6.3.1.5|Section 3.6.3.1.5]] )

|-
| Seasonal and dynamic forecasts

| ''High confidence''

| The proliferation of real-time and seasonal forecasts of temperature extremes, marine heatwaves, storm surges, harmful algal blooms and the distribution of living marine resources greatly contribute to adaptation through monitoring, early-warning systems, adaptive management and ecosystem-based management.

| [[#Payne--2017|Payne et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Hazen--2018|Hazen et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Fernández-Montblanc--2019|Fernández-Montblanc et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Holbrook--2020|Holbrook et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Winter--2020|Winter et al. (2020)]] ; Bever et al. (2021); [[#Davidson--2021|Davidson et al. (2021)]] ; [[#Spillman--2021|Spillman and Smith (2021)]]

| Fisheries and mariculture ( [[#3.6.3.1.2|Section 3.6.3.1.2]] ), marine protected areas (MPAs) ( [[#3.6.3.2|Section 3.6.3.2.1]] ), climate services ( [[#3.6.3.2|Section 3.6.3.2.4]] )

|-
| Monitoring systems

| ''Medium confidence''

| Monitoring systems that address climate-induced drivers, ecosystem impacts and social vulnerabilities in marine social–ecological systems are key for adaptation.

| [[#Nichols--2019|Nichols et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Claudet--2020a|Claudet et al. (2020a)]] ; [[#Wilson--2020a|Wilson et al. (2020a)]]

| MPAs ( [[#3.6.3.2|Section 3.6.3.2.1]] ), climate services ( [[#3.6.3.2|Section 3.6.3.2.4]] ), fisheries ( [[#3.6.3.1.2|Section 3.6.3.1.2]] )

|-
| Habitat development

| ''Low confidence''

| Accelerates the recovery of damaged ecosystems and promotes ecological or biological adaptation to future climate change.

| [[#Jones--2018a|Jones et al. (2018a)]] ; [[#Boström-Einarsson--2020|Boström-Einarsson et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Kleypas--2021|Kleypas et al. (2021)]]

| Restoration ( [[#3.6.3.2.2|Section 3.6.3.2.2]] )

|-
| Active restoration

| ''High confidence''

| Reintroduces species or augments existing populations, for example, propagating and transplanting heat-tolerant coral species.

| [[#Boström-Einarsson--2020|Boström-Einarsson et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Rinkevich--2021|Rinkevich (2021)]]

| Restoration (3.6.3.2.2)

|-
| Assisted evolution

| ''High confidence''

| Manipulates species’ genes to accelerate natural selection.

| [[#Bulleri--2018|Bulleri et al. (2018)]] ; [[#National%20Academies%20of%20Sciences--2019|National Academies of Sciences (2019)]] ; [[#Morris--2020c|Morris et al. (2020c)]]

| Restoration ( [[#3.6.3.2.2|Section 3.6.3.2.2]] )

|}

(a) Confidence is assessed in SM3.5.1. Feasibility and effectiveness are assessed in Figure 3.24.

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==== 3.6.2.3 Marine and Coastal Nature-Based Solutions ====

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The ocean and coastal adaptation portfolio (Figure 3.23) also includes marine and coastal NbS (Table 3.30). NbS that contribute to climate adaptation, also known as ecosystem-based adaptations (EBA), are cross-cutting actions that harness ecosystem functions to restore, protect and sustainably manage marine ecosystems facing climate-change impacts, while also benefiting social systems and human security ( [[#Abelson--2015|Abelson et al., 2015]] ; [[#Barkdull--2019|Barkdull and Harris, 2019]] ) and supporting biodiversity ( ''high confidence'' ) (Annex II: Glossary; Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL in Chapter 2; [[#Seddon--2021|Seddon et al., 2021]] ). NbS are expected to contribute to global adaptation and mitigation goals ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Beck--2018|Beck et al., 2018]] ; [[#Cooley--2019|Cooley et al., 2019]] ; [[#Hoegh-Guldberg--2019b|Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2019b]] ; [[#Menéndez--2020|Menéndez et al., 2020]] ; [[#Morris--2020a|Morris et al., 2020a]] ) by protecting coastal environments from SLR and storms (Cross-Chapter Box SLR; [[#Reguero--2018|Reguero et al., 2018]] ), and by storing substantial quantities of carbon (Sections 3.4.2.5, 3.6.3.1.5; WGIII AR6 Chapter 7; [[#Howard--2017|Howard et al., 2017]] ; [[#Chow--2018|Chow, 2018]] ; [[#Smale--2018|Smale et al., 2018]] ; [[#Singh--2019b|Singh et al., 2019b]] ; [[#Soper--2019|Soper et al., 2019]] ). Marine NbS are cost-effective, can generate social, economic and cultural co-benefits, and can contribute to the conservation of biodiversity in the near- to mid-term ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Secretariat%20of%20the%20Convention%20on%20Biological%20Diversity--2009|Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2009]] ; [[#Gattuso--2018|Gattuso et al., 2018]] ; [[#Barkdull--2019|Barkdull and Harris, 2019]] ; [[#McLeod--2019|McLeod et al., 2019]] ).

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