Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-11 (section)

=== 11.7.1 Observed Adaptation Decision-Making ===

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The ambition, scope and progress on adaptation by governments have risen but are uneven, with a focus on high-level strategies at the national level, adaptation planning at sub-national levels and new enabling legislation ( ''very high confidence'' ) (Table 11.15a, Table 11.15b) ( [[#Lawrence--2015|Lawrence et al., 2015]] ; [[#Macintosh--2015|Macintosh et al., 2015]] ; [[#MfE--2020a|MfE, 2020a]] ). The adaptation process comprises vulnerability and risk assessments, identification of options, planning, implementation, monitoring, evaluation and review. Large gaps remain, especially in effective implementation, monitoring and evaluation (Supplementary Material SM 11.1) ( [[#CCATWG--2017|CCATWG, 2017]] ; [[#Warnken--2018|Warnken and Mosadeghi, 2018]] ), and current adaptation is largely incremental and reactive ( ''very high confidence'' ) (Box 11.4, Box 11.6, Table 11.14).

'''Table 11.15a |''' Examples of Australian adaptation strategies, plans and initiatives by government agencies at national, sub-national and regional or local levels. These examples have not been assessed for their effectiveness (see Supplementary Material Table SM11.1a).

{| class="wikitable"
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! Jurisdiction

! Strategies/Plans/Actions

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| colspan="2"| National Level

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| Australia

| National Climate Resilience and Adaptation Strategy 2015 ( [[#CoA--2015|CoA, 2015]] )

National Disaster Risk Reduction Framework (2018) ( [[#CoA--2018b|CoA, 2018b]] )

National Recovery and Resilience Agency and Australian Climate Service (CoA, 2021)

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|
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| colspan="2"| Sub-national

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| Australian Capital Territory (ACT)

| ACT Climate Change Strategy 2019–2025 ( [[#ACT%20Government--2019|ACT Government, 2019]] )

Canberra’s Living Infrastructure Plan: Cooling the City ( [[#ACT%20Government--2020b|ACT Government, 2020b]] ); ACT Well-being Framework ( [[#ACT%20Government--2020a|ACT Government, 2020a]] )

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| New South Wales

| NSW Climate Change Policy Framework ( [[#NSW%20Government--2016|NSW Government, 2016]] )

|-
|
| Coastal Management Framework ( [[#OEH--2018b|OEH, 2018b]] ) including

Coastal Management Act 2016, State Environmental Planning Policy (Coastal Management) 2018, NSW Coastal Management Manual ( [[#OEH--2018c|OEH, 2018c]] ; [[#OEH--2018a|OEH, 2018a]] )

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| Northern Territory

| Northern Territory Climate Change Response: Towards 2050 ( [[#DENR--2020b|DENR, 2020b]] ) three-year action plan ( [[#DENR--2020a|DENR, 2020a]] )

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| Queensland

| Pathways to climate-resilient Queensland: Queensland Climate Adaptation Strategy 2017–2030 ( [[#DEHP--2013|DEHP, 2013]] )

|-
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| Sector adaptation plans: https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/climate/climate-change/adapting/sectors-systems

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|
| State heatwave risk assessment, 2019 ( [[#QFES--2019|QFES, 2019]] )

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| Planning Act 2016 ( [[#Queensland%20Government--2020|Queensland Government, 2020]] ) and the Coastal Protection and Management Act 1995 ( [[#Queensland%20Government--1995|Queensland Government, 1995]] ), plus supporting initiatives: Coastal Management Plan ( [[#DEHP--2013|DEHP, 2013]] ) and Shoreline Erosion Management Plans ( [[#DES--2018|DES, 2018]] )

Queensland’s QCoast2100 program

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| South Australia

| Directions for a Climate Smart South Australia ( [[#SA%20Government--2019a|SA Government, 2019a]] )

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| Tasmania

| Climate Action 21: Tasmania’s Climate Change Action Plan 2017–2021 ( [[#State%20of%20Tasmania--2017a|State of Tasmania, 2017a]] )

|-
|
| Tasmania’s 2016 State Natural Disaster Risk Assessment ( [[#White--2016a|White et al., 2016a]] )

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| Tasmanian Planning Scheme—State Planning Provisions 2017, Coastal Inundation Hazard Code and a Coastal Erosion Hazard Code ( [[#Government%20of%20Tasmania--2017|Government of Tasmania, 2017]] ).

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| Victoria

| In accordance with the Climate Change Act 2017, Victoria has a Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2017–2020 ( [[#Victoria%20State%20Government%20DELWP--2016|Victoria State Government DELWP, 2016]] ) including a Monitoring, Evaluation, Reporting and Improvement (MERI) framework for Climate Change Adaptation in Victoria ( [[#DELWP--2018|DELWP, 2018]] ), Victorian Climate Projections (2019) and multiple resources for regions and local government (Victoria DELWP 2020).

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|
| Heatwaves in Victoria. A 2018 vulnerability assessment of the state to heatwaves using a Damage and Loss Assessment methodology ( [[#Natural%20Capital%20Economics--2018|Natural Capital Economics, 2018]] )

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| Western Australia

| Western Australian Government Adapting to our changing climate

2012 ( [[#WA%20Government--2016|WA Government, 2016]] )

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| State Planning Policy 2.6 – Coastal Planning (SPP2.6)

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| colspan="2"| Regional and local (examples only)

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| colspan="2"| 104 have declared climate emergencies to leverage climate action as of September 2021 covering 36.6% of the Australian population (Climate Emergency Declaration, 2022)

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| Tasmania

| 2017: Tasmanian Planning Scheme – State Planning Provisions. State of Tasmania, 514.

( [[#State%20of%20Tasmania--2017a|State of Tasmania, 2017a]] ; [[#State%20of%20Tasmania--2017b|State of Tasmania, 2017b]] )

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| South Australia

| Regional integrated vulnerability assessments (IVAs) and adaptation plans ( [[#SA%20Government--2019a|SA Government, 2019a]] )

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| NSW

| Enabling Regional Adaptation ( [[#Jacobs--2016|Jacobs et al., 2016]] )

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| Victoria

| Every region and catchment management authority in Victoria has an adaptation plan, as does virtually every local government. There are also three alliances of multiple local governments working on climate change and new initiatives such as the Climate Change Exchange: https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/967-epc-la/inquiry-into-tackling-climate-change-in-victorian-communities

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| NSW

| Coastal Zone Management Plan for Bilgola Beach (Bilgola) and Basin Beach (Mona Vale) ( [[#Haskoning%20Australia--2016|Haskoning Australia, 2016]] )

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| Queensland

| Torres Strait Climate Change Strategy ( [[#TSRA--2014|TSRA, 2014]] ), Torres Strait Regional Adaptation and Resilience Plan 2016–2021 ( [[#TSRA--2016|TSRA, 2016]] )

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| Climate Risk Management Framework for Queensland Local Government ( [[#Erhart--2020|Erhart et al., 2020]] )

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| Douglas Shire Coast Strategic Plan 2019 ( [[#Douglas%20Shire%20Council--2019|Douglas Shire Council, 2019]] )

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| Northern Territory

| Climate Change Action Plan (2011–2020) ( [[#Darwin%20City%20Council--2011|Darwin City Council, 2011]] )

|}

'''Table 11.15b |''' Examples of New Zealand’s adaptation strategies, plans and initiatives by government agencies at national, sub-national and regional or local levels. NB: These examples have not been assessed for their effectiveness (see Supplementary Material Table SM11.1b)

{| class="wikitable"
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! '''Jurisdiction'''

! '''Strategies/Plans/Actions'''

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| New Zealand central Government

| The New Zealand Government’s adaptation policy framework is based on the following legislation: Resource Management Act 1991, Local Government Act 2002, National Disaster Resilience Strategy 2019 ( [[#CDEM--2019|CDEM, 2019]] ) and the Climate Change Response (Zero Carbon Amendment) Act 2002 (CCRA 2002)

Adaptation preparedness report 2020/2021 baseline is the reporting organisation responses from the first information request under the CCRA 2002 ( [[#MfE--2021|MfE, 2021]] ) to assist the monitoring of progress and effectiveness of adaptation by the Climate Change Commission

The Department of Conservation’s Climate Change Adaptation Action plan sets out a long-term strategy for climate research, monitoring and action; DOC climate adaptation plan

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| Local Government

| In July 2017, a group of 66 local government mayors and council chairs (of 78 in total) endorsed a 2015 local government declaration calling for urgent responsive leadership and a holistic approach on climate change, with the government needing to play a vital enabling leadership role ( [[#LGNZ--2017|LGNZ, 2017]] ; [[#Schneider--2017|Schneider et al., 2017]] ).

Seventeen councils have declared climate emergencies to leverage climate action plans as of September 2021, covering 75.3% of the New Zealand population.

The MfE adaptation preparedness report states that 18% of councils (11 of 61 surveyed in 2021) have some sort of plan or strategy to increase resilience to climate impacts ( [[#MfE--2021|MfE, 2021]] ). Out of New Zealand’s 15 regional and unitary councils, 2 have climate adaptation strategies in place. One council has conducted a climate risk assessment, and four have one in development. Five councils have climate action plans, and three are in development.

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| colspan="2"| '''Regional Councils (''' examples only)

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| Bay of Plenty Regional Council

| Climate Action Plan July 2019 (non-statutory) Climate Action Plan

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| Waikato Regional Council

| Long-Term Plan 2018–2028 (LTP)

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| Greater Wellington Regional Council

| GWRC’s Climate Change Strategy (October 2015) Climate change strategy implementation

Hutt River Flood Risk Management Plan

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| colspan="2"| '''Unitary Authorities''' (examples only)

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| Auckland Council

| Auckland Unitary Plan

AUP RPS B10

Table B11.9 (bottom of doc)

E36. Natural hazards and flooding

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| Marlborough District Council

| Marlborough Environment Plan first to integrate DAPP into plan policies.

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| Gisborne District Council

| Tairāwhiti Resource Management Plan (District Plan) March 2020

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| colspan="2"| '''District Council''' (example only)

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| Waimakariri District Council

| Infrastructure Strategy in the Long Term Plan 2017.

Long-Term-Plan-Further-Information-Document-WEB.pdf

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Australia has a National Climate Resilience and Adaptation Strategy, a National Recovery and Resilience Agency (11.5.2.3), and the First National Action Plan to implement the National Disaster Risk Reduction Framework which acknowledges climate change as a disaster risk driver ( [[#Home%20Affairs--2020|Home Affairs, 2020]] ). States and territories have climate change adaptation strategies with plans to address them (Table 11.15a), with some adaptation implementation at the state level and, increasingly, at the local government level ( [[#Jacobs--2016|Jacobs et al., 2016]] ; [[#Warnken--2018|Warnken and Mosadeghi, 2018]] ) (Table 11.15a). In coastal zones, however, few local government planning instruments are being applied ( [[#Warnken--2018|Warnken and Mosadeghi, 2018]] ; [[#Harvey--2019|Harvey, 2019]] ; [[#Robb--2019|Robb et al., 2019]] ; [[#Elrick-Barr--2021|Elrick-Barr and Smith, 2021]] ). Some businesses and industry sectors are recognising climate-related risks and adaptation planning (11.3.4; 11.3.7; 11.3.10) ( [[#Harris--2016|Harris et al., 2016]] ; [[#Hennessy--2016|Hennessy et al., 2016]] ; [[#CBA--2019|CBA, 2019]] ). There is an opportunity for Australia to undertake a national risk assessment and to develop a national climate adaptation implementation plan that is aligned with Paris Agreement expectations of a national-level system for adaptation planning, monitoring and reporting ( [[#Morgan--2019|Morgan et al., 2019]] ).

New Zealand’s Climate Change Response Act 2019 creates a legal mandate for national climate change risk assessments (first one completed) ( [[#MfE--2020a|MfE, 2020a]] ) and national adaptation plans (first in preparation), as well as a Climate Change Commission to monitor and report on adaptation implementation. Preparation of natural and built environment, strategic planning and climate change adaptation acts is under way, including provision for funding and managed retreat ( [[#MfE--2020c|MfE, 2020c]] ). National coastal guidance is available for adaptation planning to address changing climate risks ( [[#MfE--2017a|MfE, 2017a]] ) (Table 11.15b). Meanwhile, several local authorities have developed integrated climate change strategies and plans and revised policies and rules to enable adaptation (Table 11.15b). Different adaptation approaches continue to create confusion and inertia while development pressures continue ( [[#Schneider--2017|Schneider et al., 2017]] ). Opportunities for integrated adaptation and mitigation planning in regional policies and plans have arisen through the Resource Management Amendment Act 2020 ( [[#Dickie--2020|Dickie, 2020]] ), the National Policy Statement on Freshwater Management ( [[#MfE--2020b|MfE, 2020b]] ) and the revised national coastal guidance ( [[#MfE--2017a|MfE, 2017a]] ), but rely on funding instruments to be in place and statutes are aligned for their effectiveness ( ''very high confidence'' ) ( [[#Boston--2018|Boston and Lawrence, 2018]] ; [[#CCATWG--2018|CCATWG, 2018]] ).

There is growing awareness of the need for more proactive adaptation planning at multiple scales and across sectors, and a better understanding of future risks and limits to adaptation is emerging ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Evans--2014|Evans et al., 2014]] ; [[#Archie--2018|Archie et al., 2018]] ; [[#Christie--2020|Christie et al., 2020]] ; [[#MfE--2020a|MfE, 2020a]] ). Disaster risk reduction is being positioned as part of climate change adaptation ( [[#Forino--2017|Forino et al., 2017]] ; [[#CDEM--2019|CDEM, 2019]] ; [[#Forino--2019|Forino et al., 2019]] ; [[#CoA--2020e|CoA, 2020e]] ; [[#CSIRO--2020|CSIRO, 2020]] ). Public and private climate adaptation services are informing climate risk assessments, but they are characterised by fragmentation, duplication, inconsistencies, poor governance and inadequate funding; addressing these gaps presents adaptation opportunities ( [[#CCATWG--2018|CCATWG, 2018]] ; [[#Webb--2019|Webb et al., 2019]] ; [[#NESP%20ESCC--2021|NESP ESCC, 2021]] ) (Table 11.15a, Table 11.15b). Large infrastructure asset planning is starting to factor in climate risks, but implementation is uneven ( [[#Gibbs--2020|Gibbs, 2020]] ). Local governments in Australia are increasingly implementing adaptation plans, but few monitor or evaluate actual outcomes or know how to ( [[#Scott--2021|Scott and Moloney, 2021]] ).

Observed and projected rates of sea level rise (SLR) (Box 11.6) and increased flood frequency (11.3.3) are challenging established uses of modelling, risk assessment and cost-benefit analysis, where climate change damage functions cannot be projected or are unknown (deep uncertainty) or impacts on communities are ambiguous ( [[#Infometrics%20and%20PSConsulting--2015|Infometrics and PSConsulting, 2015]] ; [[#Lawrence--2019a|Lawrence et al., 2019a]] ; [[#MfE--2020a|MfE, 2020a]] ). New tools are available in the region (Table 11.17), but uptake cannot be assumed ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Lawrence--2017|Lawrence and Haasnoot, 2017]] ; [[#Palutikof--2019c|Palutikof et al., 2019c]] ).

Resilience and adaptation approaches are beginning to converge ( [[#White--2014|White and O’Hare, 2014]] ; [[#Aldunce--2015|Aldunce et al., 2015]] ) (Supplementary Material SM 11.1) but widespread ‘bounce-back’ resilience-driven responses that lock in risk by discounting ongoing and changing climate risk ( [[#Leitch--2014|Leitch and Bohensky, 2014]] ; [[#O’Hare--2016|O’Hare et al., 2016]] ; [[#Wenger--2017|Wenger, 2017]] ; [[#Torabi--2018|Torabi et al., 2018]] ) can create maladaptation and impede long-term adaptation goals ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Glavovic--2014|Glavovic and Smith, 2014]] ; [[#Dudney--2018|Dudney et al., 2018]] ).

Local government engagement with communities on adaptation is starting to motivate a change towards more collaborative engagement practices ( [[#Archie--2018|Archie et al., 2018]] ; [[#Bendall--2018|Bendall, 2018]] ; [[#MfE--2019|MfE, 2019]] ; [[#Schneider--2020|Schneider et al., 2020]] ). Nature-based adaptations ( [[#Colloff--2016|Colloff et al., 2016]] ; [[#Lavorel--2019|Lavorel et al., 2019]] ; [[#Della%20Bosca--2020|Della Bosca and Gillespie, 2020]] ) and ‘green infrastructure’ ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Lin--2016|Lin et al., 2016]] ; [[#Alexandra--2020|Alexandra and Norman, 2020]] ) are increasingly being adopted ( [[#Rogers--2020a|Rogers et al., 2020a]] ).

Some businesses have initiated active adaptation ( [[#Aldum--2014|Aldum et al., 2014]] ; [[#Linnenluecke--2015|Linnenluecke et al., 2015]] ; [[#Bremer--2017|Bremer and Linnenluecke, 2017]] ; [[#CCATWG--2017|CCATWG, 2017]] ; [[#MfE--2018|MfE, 2018]] ), with most focused on identifying climate risks ( [[#Aldum--2014|Aldum et al., 2014]] ; [[#Gasbarro--2016|Gasbarro et al., 2016]] ; [[#Cradock-Henry--2017|Cradock-Henry, 2017]] ). Businesses are more likely to engage in anticipatory adaptation when the frequency of climate events is known ( [[#McKnight--2019|McKnight and Linnenluecke, 2019]] ). Effective cooperation and a positive innovation culture can contribute to the collaborative development of climate change adaptation pathways ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Bardsley--2018|Bardsley et al., 2018]] ).

Some areas in northern Australia and New Zealand, especially those with higher proportions of Indigenous populations, face severe housing, health, education, employment and services deficits that exacerbate the impacts of climate change ( [[#Kotey--2015|Kotey, 2015]] ) (11.3.5; 11.4; 11.6).

Where adaptation relies upon an ageing population and an overstretched volunteer base, vulnerability to climate change impacts is being exacerbated ( [[#Astill--2018|Astill and Miller, 2018]] ; [[#Davies--2018|Davies et al., 2018]] ). Adaptation options that succeed within remote Indigenous communities are founded on connections to traditional lands, alignment with cultural values and contribute to social, cultural and economic goals ( [[#Nursey-Bray--2018|Nursey-Bray and Palmer, 2018]] ). Knowledge co-production for Indigenous adaptation pathways can enable transformative change from colonial legacies ( [[#Hill--2020|Hill et al., 2020]] ). Learning and experimentation across governance boundaries and between agencies and local communities enable adaptation to be better aligned with changing climate risks and community ( ''high confidenc'' e) ( [[#Fünfgeld--2015|Fünfgeld, 2015]] ; [[#Howes--2015|Howes et al., 2015]] ; [[#Bardsley--2016|Bardsley and Wiseman, 2016]] ; [[#Lawrence--2019b|Lawrence et al., 2019b]] ).

There is increasing focus on improving adaptive capacity for transitional and transformational responses, but reactive responses dominate ( ''very high confidence'' ) ( [[#Smith--2015|Smith et al., 2015]] ; [[#Schlosberg--2017|Schlosberg et al., 2017]] ; [[#Boston--2018|Boston and Lawrence, 2018]] ). While extreme events can provide opportunities for positive transitions within communities ( [[#Cradock-Henry--2018b|Cradock-Henry et al., 2018b]] ) (e.g., Queensland Reconstruction Authority Building Back Better scheme), often rebuilding occurs in at-risk places to aid quick recovery ( [[#Lawrence--2017|Lawrence and Saunders, 2017]] ). Community-based adaptation innovations ( [[#Bendall--2018|Bendall, 2018]] ; [[#Kench--2018|Kench et al., 2018]] ; [[#Forino--2019|Forino et al., 2019]] ) include relationship building; use of new decision tools, pathways planning with communities, visualisation and serious games ( [[#Lawrence--2017|Lawrence and Haasnoot, 2017]] ; [[#Schlosberg--2017|Schlosberg et al., 2017]] ; [[#Flood--2018|Flood et al., 2018]] ; [[#Reiter--2018|Reiter et al., 2018]] ; [[#Serrao-Neumann--2018|Serrao-Neumann and Choy, 2018]] ); communities of practice; and climate information sharing ( [[#Astill--2019|Astill et al., 2019]] ; [[#Stone--2019|Stone et al., 2019]] ).

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