Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-3 (section)

=== FAQ 3.4 | Which industries and jobs are most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change in the oceans? ===

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''The global ocean underpins human well-being through the provision of resources that directly and indirectly feed and employ many millions of people. In many regions, climate change is degrading ocean health and altering stocks of marine resources. Together with over-harvesting, climate change is threatening the future of the sustenance provided to Indigenous Peoples, the livelihoods of artisanal fisheries, and marine-based industries including tourism, shipping and transportation.''

The ocean is the lifeblood of the planet. In addition to regulating planetary cycles of carbon, water and heat, the ocean and its vast resources support human livelihoods, cultural practices, jobs and industries. The impacts of climate change on the ocean can influence human activities and employment by altering resource availability, spreading pathogens, flooding shorelines and degrading ocean ecosystems. Fishing and mariculture are highly exposed to change. The global ocean and inland waters together provide more than 3.3 billion people at least 20% of the protein they eat and provide livelihoods for 60 million people. Changes in the nutritional quality or abundance of food from the oceans could influence billions of people.

Substantial economic losses for fisheries resulting from recent climate-driven harmful algal blooms and marine pathogen outbreaks have been recorded in Asia, North America and South America. A 2016 event in Chile caused an estimated loss of 800 million USD in the farmed-salmon industry and led to regional government protests. The recent closure of the Dungeness crab and razor clam fishery in the USA due to a climate-driven algal bloom harmed 84% of surveyed residents from 16 California coastal communities. Fishers and service industries that support commercial and recreational fishing experienced the most substantial economic losses, and fishers were the least able to recover their losses. This same event also disrupted subsistence and recreational fishing for razor clams, important activities for Indigenous Peoples and local communities in the Pacific Northwest of the USA.

Other goods from the ocean, including non-food products like dietary supplements, food preservatives, pharmaceuticals, biofuels, sponges and cosmetic products, as well as luxury products like jewellery coral, cultured pearls and aquarium species, will change in abundance or quality due to climate change. For instance, ocean warming is endangering the ‘candlefish’ ooligan ( ''Thaleichthys pacificus'' ), whose oil is a traditional food source and medicine of Indigenous Peoples of the Pacific Northwest of North America. Declines in tourism and real estate values, associated with climate-driven harmful algal blooms, have also been recorded in the USA, France and England.

Small-scale fisheries livelihoods and jobs are the most vulnerable to climate-driven changes in marine resources and ecosystem services. The abundance and composition of their harvest depend on suitable environmental conditions and on IKLK developed over generations. Large-scale fisheries, though still vulnerable, are more able to adapt to climate change due to greater mobility and greater resources for changing technologies. These fisheries are already adapting by broadening catch diversity, increasing their mobility to follow shifting species, and changing gear, technology and strategies. Adaptation in large-scale fisheries, however, is at times constrained by regulations and governance challenges.

Jobs, industries and livelihoods which depend on particular species or are tied to the coast can also be at risk from climate change. Species-dependent livelihoods (e.g., a lobster fishery or oyster farm) are vulnerable due to a lack of substitutes if the fished species are declining, biodiversity is reduced, or mariculture is threatened by climate change or ocean acidification. Coastal activities and industries ranging from fishing (e.g., gleaning on a tidal flat) to tourism to shipping and transportation are also vulnerable to sea level rise and other climate-change impacts on the coastal environment. The ability of coastal systems to protect the shoreline will decline due to sea level rise and simultaneous degradation of nearshore systems, including coral reefs, kelp forests and coastal wetlands.

The vulnerability of communities to losses in marine ecosystem services varies within and among communities. Tourists seeking to replace lost cultural services can adapt by engaging in the activity elsewhere. But communities who depend on tourism for income or who have strong cultural identity linked to the ocean have a more difficult time. Furthermore, climate-change impacts exacerbate existing inequalities already experienced by some communities, including Indigenous Peoples, Pacific Island countries and territories and marginalised peoples, such as migrants and women in fisheries and mariculture. These inequities increase the risk to their fundamental human rights by disrupting livelihoods and food security, while leading to loss of social, economic and cultural rights. These maladaptive outcomes can be avoided by securing tenure and access rights to resources and territories for all people depending on the ocean, and by supporting decision-making processes that are just, participatory and equitable.

[[File:53e757327a32692fda6ba24464c408ff IPCC_AR6_WGII_Figure_3_FAQ_3_4.png]]

'''Figure FAQ3.4.1 |''' '''Illustration of vulnerable ocean and coastal groups, the climate-induced hazards they experience, and anticipated outcomes for human systems.'''

A key adaptation solution is improving access to credit and insurance in order to buffer against variability in resource access and abundance. Further actions that decrease social and institutional vulnerability are also important, such as inclusive decision-making processes, access to resources and land for Indigenous Peoples, and participatory approaches in management. For the fishing industry, international fisheries agreements and investing in sustainable mariculture and fisheries reforms is often recommended. Immediate adaptations to other challenges, such as harmful algal blooms, frequently include fishing-area closures; these can be informed by early-warning forecasts, public communications; and education. These types of adaptations are more effective when built on trusted relationships and effective coordination among involved parties, and are inclusive of the diversity of actors in a coastal community.

'''Table 3.30 |''' Assessment of marine and coastal nature-based solutions to reduce mid-term climate impacts in oceans and coastal ecosystems a

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Solution

! Confidence in solution (mid-term potential)

! Contribution to adaptation

! Selected references

! Examples of implementation

|-
| Habitat restoration

| ''High confidence''

| Marine habitat restoration increases biodiversity and protects shorelines and coastal livelihoods from climate oceanic hazards.

| Colls et al. (2009); [[#Arkema--2017|Arkema et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Espeland--2018|Espeland and Kettenring (2018)]] ; [[#McLeod--2019|McLeod et al. (2019)]]

| Restoration ( [[#3.6.3.2.2|Section 3.6.3.2.2]] )

|-
| Marine protected areas (MPAs) and other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs)

| ''High confidence''

| MPAs and MPA networks that are carefully designed to address climate change, strategically placed and well enforced, hold great potential to deliver adaptation outcomes. OECMs can confer climate resilience to dependent communities outside of MPAs.

| [[#3.4.3.3.4|Section 3.4.3.3.4]] ; [[#Queirós--2016|Queirós et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Roberts--2017|Roberts et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Maxwell--2020a|Maxwell et al. (2020a)]] ; [[#Arafeh-Dalmau--2021|Arafeh-Dalmau et al. (2021)]] ; [[#Gurney--2021|Gurney et al. (2021)]] ; [[#Sala--2021|Sala et al. (2021)]]

| Conservation ( [[#3.6.3.2|Section 3.6.3.2.1]] )

|-
| Conservation of climate refugia

| ''Medium confidence''

| Protecting areas that retain climate and biodiversity conditions for longer durations under climate change can increase the resilience of marine ecosystems to warming and marine heatwaves (MHWs), and facilitate marine species range shifts.

| [[#3.4.3.3.4|Section 3.4.3.3.4]] ; Cross-Chapter Box MOVING SPECIES in Chapter 5; [[#Rilov--2020|Rilov et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Wilson--2020a|Wilson et al. (2020a)]] ; [[#Arafeh-Dalmau--2021|Arafeh-Dalmau et al. (2021)]]

| Conservation ( [[#3.6.3.2|Section 3.6.3.2.1]] )

|-
| Transboundary marine spatial planning (MSP) and integrated coastal zone management (ICZM)

| ''Low confidence''

| Transboundary MSP and ICZM that incorporate climate-change impacts and adaptation in their design can support climate adaptation and foster international ocean cooperation.

| Rosendo et al. (2018); [[#Tittensor--2019|Tittensor et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Frazão%20Santos--2020|Frazão Santos et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Rilov--2020|Rilov et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Pinsky--2021|Pinsky et al. (2021)]]

| Tourism ( [[#3.6.3.1.3|Section 3.6.3.1.3]] ), conservation, ( [[#3.6.3.2|Section 3.6.3.2.1]] .)

|-
| Sustainable harvesting

| ''High confidence''

| Sustainable harvesting is a nature-based solution that contributes to adaptation by safeguarding the provision of marine food and cultural services while reducing the ecological vulnerability of marine ecosystems.

| [[#Gattuso--2018|Gattuso et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Burden--2019|Burden and Fujita (2019)]] ; [[#Duarte--2020|Duarte et al. (2020)]]

| Fisheries and mariculture ( [[#3.6.3.1.2|Section 3.6.3.1.2]] )

|-
| Climate-adaptive management

| ''High confidence''

| Incorporating climate-adaptive management allows climate knowledge and information available for the system to be iteratively updated in the management plan. It also facilitates consideration of species distribution shifts and other climate-change responses.

| Cross-Chapter Box MOVING SPECIES in Chapter 5; [[#Rilov--2019|Rilov et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Free--2020|Free et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Wilson--2020a|Wilson et al. (2020a)]] ; [[#Melbourne-Thomas--2021|Melbourne-Thomas et al. (2021)]]

| Fisheries and mariculture ( [[#3.6.3.1.2|Section 3.6.3.1.2]] ), conservation, ( [[#3.6.3.2|Section 3.6.3.2.1]] ), restoration ( [[#3.6.3.2.2|Section 3.6.3.2.2]] )

|-
| Ecosystem-based management (EbM)

| ''High confidence''

| EbM focuses on ecosystems. By incorporating many of the above tools, ecosystem-based adaptation benefits adaptation of marine ecosystems and supports provision of ecosystem services to people.

| Fernandino et al. (2018); [[#Lowerre-Barbieri--2019|Lowerre-Barbieri et al. (2019)]]

| Fisheries and mariculture ( [[#3.6.3.1.2|Section 3.6.3.1.2]] )

|}

(a) Confidence is assessed in SM3.5.1. Feasibility and effectiveness are assessed in Figure 3.24.

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