Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-10 (section)

==== 10.5.3.2 Findings ====

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There are three key aspects of adaptation to which psychology and behavioural science contribute: understanding perceptions of climate risk, identifying the behavioural drivers of adaptation actions and analysing the impacts of climate change on human well-being ( [[#Clayton--2015|Clayton et al., 2015]] ). Overall, there is growing acknowledgement that individual adaptation is significantly shaped by perceptions of risk, perceived self-efficacy (i.e., beliefs about which options are effective and one’s ability to implement specific adaptation interventions), sociocultural norms and beliefs within which adaptation decisions are taken, past experiences of risk management and the nature of the intervention itself ( [[#Grothmann--2005|Grothmann and Patt, 2005]] ; [[#Werg--2013|Werg et al., 2013]] ; [[#Clayton--2015|Clayton et al., 2015]] ; [[#Truelove--2015|Truelove et al., 2015]] ; [[#Pyhälä--2016|Pyhälä et al., 2016]] ; [[#Deng--2017|Deng et al., 2017]] ; [[#Sullivan-Wiley--2017|Sullivan-Wiley and Short Gianotti, 2017]] ; [[#Taylor--2019|Taylor, 2019]] ; [[#van%20Valkengoed--2019a|van Valkengoed and Steg, 2019a]] ). This is in addition to more commonly understood factors shaping adaptation behaviour such as technical know-how and the cost and benefits associated with an option.

Across Asia, behavioural aspects of adaptation have been studied to a lesser extent: a global meta-analysis of 106 studies found that most research focused on North America and Europe with only 12% of papers from Asia ( [[#van%20Valkengoed--2019a|van Valkengoed and Steg, 2019a]] ). Within Asia, behavioural drivers of adaptation decision making have been studied primarily in agriculture (in South, East and Southeast Asia) and disaster risk management (from Southeast and East Asia) (Table 10.4) and tend to focus on technical adaptation interventions rather than how and why people adapt ( [[#Sun--2018|Sun and Han, 2018]] ).

'''Table 10.4 |''' Sectors and sub-regions where behavioural aspects of adaptation have been assessed

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Sub-region

! Sector

! Adaptation interventions

! Behavioural aspects affecting adaptation

! Supporting references

|-
| '''West Asia'''

| '''Agriculture'''

| '''Soil and water conservation activities to mitigate drought impacts'''

| '''Response efficacy and perceived severity shape water conservation.'''

| '''Iran ( [[#Keshavarz--2016|Keshavarz and Karami, 2016]] )'''

|-
| '''Central Asia'''

| '''NE''' ''a''

| '''NE''' ''a''

| '''NE''' ''a''

| '''NE''' ''a''

|-
| rowspan="8"| '''South Asia'''

| rowspan="4"| '''Agriculture'''

| '''Conservation agriculture, adjusting agricultural practices'''

| '''Risk perceptions shape adoption of adaptation strategy (e.g., perceptions of decreasing rainfall motivate building water storage tanks).'''

| '''Nepal ( [[#Piya--2013|Piya et al., 2013]] ; [[#Halbrendt--2014|Halbrendt et al., 2014]] )'''

|-
| '''Sustainable water management practices, adjusting agricultural practices'''

| '''Risk perception is shaped by sociocultural context, memories, experiences and expectations (of future change).'''

| '''India ( [[#Singh--2016|Singh et al., 2016]] )'''

|-
| '''Alternate wetting and drying irrigation, alternative crop selection, using drought-resistant seeds'''

| '''A combination of attitudes, self-efficacy, outcome efficacy, and community efficacy predict intent to adapt strongly.'''

| '''Sri Lanka ( [[#Truelove--2015|Truelove et al., 2015]] )'''

|-
| '''Adjustment in farm management including growing short duration or drought-tolerant varieties, pest-resistant varieties, changing planting distance, increasing weeding, soil conservation techniques, cultivation of direct-seeded rice, switching to non-rice crops'''

| '''Farmers’ education, access to credit and extension services, experience with climate-change impacts such as drought and flood, information on climate-change issues, belief in climate change and the need to adapt all variously determine their decision making.'''

| '''Nepal ( [[#Khanal--2018|Khanal et al., 2018]] )'''

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Disaster management'''

| '''Flood and cyclone preparedness measures such as using durable building materials, raising plinth levels, storing food and water'''

| '''Disaster management behaviour is intuitive: low evidence to suggest outcome expectancy, self-efficacy, and preparedness intention follow linear patterns.'''

| '''India ( [[#Samaddar--2014|Samaddar et al., 2014]] ); Bangladesh ( [[#Dasgupta--2014b|Dasgupta et al., 2014b]] )'''

|-
| '''Use of emergency toolkits and evacuation plans'''

| '''Risk perception and knowledge of adaptation options shape uptake and perceived benefits.'''

| '''Pakistan, Bangladesh ( [[#Alvi--2020|Alvi and Khayyam, 2020]] )'''

|-
| '''Insurance to deal mitigate financial losses from floods and droughts'''

| '''Frequency, the severity of previous extreme events, socioeconomic settings and ability to pay shape decisions to take crop insurance.'''

'''Acceptability of flood insurance depends on the perceived efficacy of the insurance (among other factors such as age of household head, land ownership and off-farm income sources).'''

| '''Pakistan (Arshad et al., 2016; [[#Abbas--2015|Abbas et al., 2015]] )'''

|-
| '''Embankments and dikes for flood risk mitigation'''

| '''Willingness to contribute manual labour to flood protection measures is positively influenced by the number of adult family members, livestock damage, compensation received and expected effectiveness of the intervention, but is negatively influenced by age and education of the household head, farm income and the distance of the farm from the river.'''

| '''Pakistan ( [[#Abbas--2019|Abbas et al., 2019]] )'''

|-
| rowspan="5"| '''Southeast Asia'''

| '''Agriculture'''

| '''Changing agricultural practices, diversifying livelihoods'''

| '''Values along with personal and social beliefs of risk shape adaptation.'''

| '''Vietnam ( [[#Le%20Dang--2014|Le Dang et al., 2014]] ; [[#Cullen--2016|Cullen and Anderson, 2016]] ; [[#Nguyen--2016|Nguyen et al., 2016]] ; [[#Arunrat--2017|Arunrat et al., 2017]] )'''

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Disaster management'''

| '''Raising floor height to avoid flooding, retrofitting houses'''

| '''Perceived probabilities and perceived consequences of flood shape preparedness.'''

| '''Vietnam ( [[#Reynaud--2013|Reynaud et al., 2013]] ; [[#Ling--2015|Ling et al., 2015]] )'''

|-
| '''Flood insurance'''

| '''Likelihood of purchasing flood insurance increased with higher physical exposure and subjective perceptions of vulnerability.'''

| '''Malaysia (Aliagha, 2013; [[#Aliagha--2014|Aliagha et al., 2014]] )'''

|-
| '''Evacuation'''

| '''Individual risk perceptions lead to learning, but only where previous disaster experiences are traumatic.'''

| '''Philippines, India ( [[#Walch--2018|Walch, 2018]] )'''

|-
| '''Disaster preparedness measures such as having kits, undertaking precautionary measures'''

| '''Perceived self-efficacy was the most significant measure affecting reactive adaptation; education had the highest effect size on anticipatory adaptation.'''

| '''Cambodia ( [[#Ung--2015|Ung et al., 2015]] )'''

|-
| rowspan="3"| '''East Asia'''

| '''Agriculture'''

| '''Changing agricultural practices, diversifying incomes, adopting water-saving technology, purchasing weather insurance'''

| '''Perceived self-efficacy strongly predicts adaptive intent.'''

| '''China ( [[#Jianjun--2015|Jianjun et al., 2015]] ; [[#Zhang--2016a|Zhang et al., 2016a]] ; [[#Burnham--2017|Burnham and Ma, 2017]] ; [[#Feng--2017|Feng et al., 2017]] )'''

|-
| rowspan="2"| '''Disaster management'''

| '''General'''

| '''Higher education and being in environments where climate is discussed leads to stronger risk perceptions.'''

| '''Taiwan, Province of China ( [[#Sun--2018|Sun and Han, 2018]] )'''

|-
| '''Drought management through early warnings, prevention information'''

| '''Policies can positively shape adaptation decision making depending on how information is given and what support is provided.'''

| '''China ( [[#Wang--2015|Wang et al., 2015]] )'''

|}

(a) No evidence

In agriculture, studies demonstrate how perceptions of risk (e.g., climate variability) ( [[#Singh--2016|Singh et al., 2016]] ; [[#Zheng--2016|Zheng and Dallimer, 2016]] ; [[#Burnham--2017|Burnham and Ma, 2017]] ; [[#Feng--2017|Feng et al., 2017]] ), sociocultural norms and personal experiences (Masud, 2016; [[#Nguyen--2016|Nguyen et al., 2016]] ; [[#Singh--2016|Singh et al., 2016]] ), and perceived efficacy of adaptation interventions in having a positive and desirable impact ( [[#Halbrendt--2014|Halbrendt et al., 2014]] ; [[#Truelove--2015|Truelove et al., 2015]] ; [[#Feng--2017|Feng et al., 2017]] ), affect adaptation decisions. Policies on providing early warnings of drought or information on prevention techniques shape farmer decisions to undertake adaptation interventions ( [[#Wang--2015|Wang et al., 2015]] ).

In disaster risk management, risk appraisal ( [[#Samaddar--2014|Samaddar et al., 2014]] ; [[#Rauf--2017|Rauf et al., 2017]] ; [[#Hung--2018|Hung et al., 2018]] ), previous experience and losses ( [[#Said--2015|Said et al., 2015]] ; [[#Hung--2018|Hung et al., 2018]] ; [[#Walch--2018|Walch, 2018]] ) 12 , [[#footnote-002|11]] perceived probabilities and consequences ( [[#Reynaud--2013|Reynaud et al., 2013]] ), perceived self-efficacy ( [[#Ung--2015|Ung et al., 2015]] ; [[#Hung--2018|Hung et al., 2018]] ) and awareness ( [[#Hung--2018|Hung et al., 2018]] ; [[#Wu--2018a|Wu et al., 2018a]] ; [[#Alvi--2020|Alvi and Khayyam, 2020]] ) shape preparedness. Individual risk management is nested within public policies, such as those on flood management, which shape individual flood risk perception and protective behaviours ( [[#Reynaud--2013|Reynaud et al., 2013]] ) as well as personal factors such as religious beliefs ( [[#Alshehri--2013|Alshehri et al., 2013]] ). For example, communities often perceive disasters as ‘acts of God’ ( [[#Birkmann--2019|Birkmann et al., 2019]] ) or punishment for wrongdoings ( [[#Alshehri--2013|Alshehri et al., 2013]] ; [[#Iqbal--2018|Iqbal et al., 2018]] ), which might constrain adaptive action. However, religious faith can also motivate people to prepare for extreme events, as Alshehri et al. (2013) showed in Saudi Arabia demonstrating how ‘Islam urges that it is most important to prepare the people to escape from disaster’ (p.1825).

Trust in public action as a mediator of risk management has had conflicting evidence: some studies have discussed trust as being critical to effective preparedness ( [[#Kittipongvises--2015|Kittipongvises and Mino, 2015]] ; [[#Walch--2018|Walch, 2018]] ), while others have found that trust in public actions, such as structural interventions to mitigate flood impacts, can lower individual motivations to act since they feel protected ( [[#Hung--2018|Hung et al., 2018]] ).

Belief in climate variability and change significantly shapes adaptation decision making ( [[#Le%20Dang--2014|Le Dang et al., 2014]] ; [[#Singh--2016|Singh et al., 2016]] ; [[#Khanal--2018|Khanal et al., 2018]] ; [[#Liu--2018a|Liu et al., 2018a]] ) with those believing in climate change and associated impacts tending to engage in adaptation. Crucially, those who do not believe in climate change can be influenced by social norms ( [[#Arunrat--2017|Arunrat et al., 2017]] ) thereby incentivising adaptation behaviour. While risk perception is a critical step in adaptation decision making, higher risk perception does not necessarily signal better capacity to cope: in Taiwan, Province of China, [[#Sun--2018|Sun and Han (2018)]] highlight how perceptions of climate risk as a global problem tends reduce its urgency as an individual issue. Providing information on climate risks, impacts and possible adaptation options enables adaptation behaviour ( [[#Piya--2013|Piya et al., 2013]] ; [[#Zheng--2016|Zheng and Dallimer, 2016]] ; [[#Rauf--2017|Rauf et al., 2017]] ), but information alone is not sufficient to motivate adaptive behaviour. Specifically, awareness building on concrete measures and outcomes, such as the amount of water saved or number of deaths averted, rather than abstract notions of climate change, motivate adaptation ( [[#Deng--2017|Deng et al., 2017]] ; [[#Rauf--2017|Rauf et al., 2017]] ).

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