Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-11 (section)

=== 11.7.3 Adaptation Enablers ===

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Adaptation enablers include understanding relevant knowledge, diverse values and governance, institutions and resources ( ''very high confidence'' ) ( [[#Gorddard--2016|Gorddard et al., 2016]] ). Skills and learning, community networks, people–place connections, trust-building, community resources and support and engaged governance build social resilience that support adaptation ( [[#Maclean--2014|Maclean et al., 2014]] ; [[#Eriksen--2019|Eriksen, 2019]] ; [[#Phelps--2019|Phelps and Kelly, 2019]] ). A multi-faceted focus on the role societal inequalities and environmental degradation play in generating climate change vulnerability can enable fairer adaptation outcomes ( [[#McManus--2014|McManus et al., 2014]] ; [[#Ambrey--2017|Ambrey et al., 2017]] ; [[#Schlosberg--2017|Schlosberg et al., 2017]] ; [[#Graham--2018|Graham et al., 2018]] ).

The feasibility and effectiveness of adaptation options will change over time depending on place, values, cultural appropriateness, social acceptability, ongoing cost-effectiveness, leadership and the ability to implement them through the prevailing governance regime ( [[#Singh--2020|Singh et al., 2020]] ). The capacity and commitment of the political system can drive early action that can reduce risks ( [[#Boston--2017|Boston, 2017]] ).

Decision makers face the challenge of how to adapt when there are ongoing knowledge gaps and uncertainties about when some climate change impacts will occur and their scale, for example coastal flooding (Box 11.6) or extreme rainfall events and their cascading effects (Box 11.4) ( ''very high confidence'' ). No-regrets decisions are ''likely'' to be insufficient ( [[#Hallegatte--2012|Hallegatte et al., 2012]] ). A perception exists in some sectors that all climate risks are manageable based on past experience ( [[#CCATWG--2017|CCATWG, 2017]] ). Projected impacts, however, are outside the range experienced, meaning that decisions must be made now for long-lived assets, land uses and communities exposed to the key risks ( [[#Paulik--2019a|Paulik et al., 2019a]] ; [[#Paulik--2020|Paulik et al., 2020]] ) often under contested conditions where adaptation competes with other public expenditures ( [[#Kwakkel--2016|Kwakkel et al., 2016]] ). New planning approaches being used across the region can enable more effective adaptation, for example continual iterative adaptation ( [[#Khan--2015|Khan et al., 2015]] ), rapid deployment of decision tools appropriate for addressing uncertainties ( [[#Marchau--2019|Marchau et al., 2019]] ) and transformation of governance and institutional arrangements ( [[#Boston--2018|Boston and Lawrence, 2018]] ) (Table 11.17). Recognising co-benefits for mitigation and sustainable development can help incentivise adaptation (11.3.5.3, 11.8.2).

'''Table 11.17 |''' Key enablers for adaptation

{| class="wikitable"
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! Enabler

! Example

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| ''Governance frameworks''

| Clear climate change adaptation mandate

Measures that inform a shift from reactive to anticipatory decision-making (e.g., decision tools that have long time frames)

Institutional frameworks integrated across all levels of government for better coordination

Revised design standards for buildings, infrastructure, landscape such as common land use planning guidance and codes of practice that integrate consideration of climate risks to address existing and future exposures and vulnerability of people and physical and cultural assets

(11.3.1, 11.3.2, 11.3.3, 11.3.4.3, 11.3.5, 1.3.6, 11.4.1, 11.4.2, 11.5.1, 11.5.2, 11.6, 11.7.1, 11.7.2, 11.8.1, 11.8.2, Table 11.7, Table 11.14, Box 11.1, Box 11.3, Box 11.5, Box 11.6)

|-
| ''Building capacity for adaptation''

| Provision of nationally consistent risk information through agreed methodologies for risk assessment that address non-stationarity

Targeted research including understanding the projected scope and scale of cascading and compounding risks

Education, training and professional development for adaptation under changing risk conditions

Accessible adaptation tools and information

(11.1.2, 11.3.4, 11.3.5, 11.4.1, 11.5.1, 11.6, 11.7.1, 11.7.2, Table 11.14, Table 11.16, Table 11.18, Box 11.6)

|-
| ''Community partnership and collaborative engagement''

| Community engagement based on principles that consider social and cultural and Indigenous Peoples’ contexts and an understanding of what people value and wish to protect (e.g., International Association of Public Participation) ( [[#Public%20Participation--2014|Public Participation, 2014]] )

Use of collaborative and learning-oriented engagement approaches tailored for the social and informed by the cultural context

Community awareness and network building

Building on Indigenous Australian and Māori communities’ social-cultural networks and conventions that promote collective action and mutual support

(11.3.5, 11.4, 11.7.1, 11.7.3.2, Table Box 11.1.1, Table 11.14, Box 11.6)

|-
| ''Dynamic adaptive decision-making''

| Increased understanding and use of decision-making tools to address uncertainties and changing risks, such as scenario planning and DAPP to enable effective adaptation as climate risk profiles worsen

(11.7.3.1, 11.7.3.2, Table 11.14, Table 15b, Table 11.18, Box 11.4, Box 11.6)

|-
| ''Funding mechanisms''

| Adaptation funding framework to increase investment in adaptation actions

New private-sector financial instruments to support adaptation

(11.7.1, 11.7.2, Table 11.16)

|-
| ''Reducing systemic vulnerabilities''

| Economic and social policies that reduce income and wealth inequalities

Strengthening social capital and cohesion

Identifying and redressing rigid or fragmented administrative and service delivery systems

Reviewing land use and spatial planning to reduce exposure to climate risks

Restoring degraded ecosystems and avoiding further environmental degradation and loss.

(11.1.1, 11.1.2, 11.3.5, 11.3.11, 11.4.1, 11.5.1.3, 11.7.2, 11.8.1; Table 11.10, Table 11.13)

|}

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==== 11.7.3.1 Planning and Tools ====

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Adaptation decision support tools enable a shift from reactive to anticipatory planning for changing climate risks ( ''high confidence'' ). The available tools are diversifying with futures and systems methodologies and dynamic adaptive policy pathways being increasingly used ( [[#Bosomworth--2017|Bosomworth et al., 2017]] ; [[#Prober--2017|Prober et al., 2017]] ; [[#Lawrence--2018a|Lawrence et al., 2018a]] ; [[#CoA--2020e|CoA, 2020e]] ; [[#Rogers--2020a|Rogers et al., 2020a]] ; [[#Schneider--2020|Schneider et al., 2020]] ) (11.5; Box 11.6) to facilitate the shift from static to dynamic adaptation by highlighting path dependencies and potential lock-in of decisions, system dependencies and the potential for cascading impacts (Table 11.17) ( [[#Wilson--2013|Wilson et al., 2013]] ; [[#Clarvis--2015|Clarvis et al., 2015]] ; [[#Pearson--2018|Pearson et al., 2018]] ; [[#Cradock-Henry--2020b|Cradock-Henry et al., 2020b]] ; [[#Lawrence--2020b|Lawrence et al., 2020b]] ). Modelling and tools to test the robustness and cost-effectiveness of options ( [[#Infometrics%20and%20PSConsulting--2015|Infometrics and PSConsulting, 2015]] ; [[#Qin--2020|Qin and Stewart, 2020]] ) can be used alongside adaptation strategies with decision-relevant and usable information ( [[#Smith--2016|Smith et al., 2016]] ; [[#Tangney--2019|Tangney, 2019]] ; [[#Serrao-Neumann--2020|Serrao-Neumann et al., 2020]] ), particularly when supported by effective governance and national and sub-national guidance (Box 11.6).

More inclusive, collaborative and learning-oriented community engagement processes are fundamental to effective adaptation outcomes (11.7.3.2) ( ''very high confidence'' ) ( [[#Boston--2016|Boston, 2016]] ; [[#Lawrence--2017|Lawrence and Haasnoot, 2017]] ; [[#Sellberg--2018|Sellberg et al., 2018]] ; [[#Serrao-Neumann--2019a|Serrao-Neumann et al., 2019a]] ; [[#Simon--2020|Simon et al., 2020]] ). More participatory vulnerability and risk assessments can better reflect different knowledge systems, values, perspectives, trade-offs, dilemmas, synergies, costs and risks ( [[#Jacobs--2019|Jacobs et al., 2019]] ; [[#Ogier--2020|Ogier et al., 2020]] ; [[#Tonmoy--2020|Tonmoy et al., 2020]] ). A shift from hierarchical to more cooperative governance modalities can assist effective adaptation ( [[#Vermeulen--2018|Vermeulen et al., 2018]] ; [[#Steffen--2019|Steffen et al., 2019]] ; [[#CoA--2020e|CoA, 2020e]] ; [[#Lawrence--2020b|Lawrence et al., 2020b]] ; [[#MfE--2020a|MfE, 2020a]] ; [[#Hanna--2021|Hanna et al., 2021]] ).

Regular monitoring, evaluation, communication and coordination of adaptation are essential for accelerating learning and adjusting to dynamic climate impacts and changes in socioeconomic and cultural conditions ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Moloney--2018|Moloney and McClaren, 2018]] ; [[#Palutikof--2019a|Palutikof et al., 2019a]] ; [[#Cradock-Henry--2020a|Cradock-Henry et al., 2020a]] ). Training to improve decision makers’ ‘evaluative capacity’ can play a role ( [[#Scott--2021|Scott and Moloney, 2021]] ). Climate action benchmarking, diagnostic tools and networking can enhance the adaptation process across diverse decision settings (e.g., water, coasts, protected areas and Indigenous Peoples) ( [[#Ayre--2017|Ayre and Nettle, 2017]] ; [[#Davidson--2018|Davidson and Gleeson, 2018]] ; [[#Coenen--2019|Coenen et al., 2019]] ; [[#Gibbs--2020|Gibbs, 2020]] ). Effective adaptation requires cross-jurisdictional and cross-sectoral policy coherence and national coordination ( [[#Delany-Crowe--2019|Delany-Crowe et al., 2019]] ; [[#Rychetnik--2019|Rychetnik et al., 2019]] ; [[#MfE--2020c|MfE, 2020c]] ).

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==== 11.7.3.2 Attitudes, Engagement and Accessible Information as Enablers ====

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Concern for climate change has become widespread ( [[#Hopkins--2015|Hopkins, 2015]] ; [[#Borchers%20Arriagada--2020|Borchers Arriagada et al., 2020]] ), giving climate adaptation social legitimacy ( ''high confidence'' ). Over three quarters of Australians (77%) agree that climate change is occurring, and 61% believe climate change is caused by humans ( [[#Merzian--2019|Merzian et al., 2019]] ). A growing proportion of Australians perceive links between climate change and high temperatures experienced during heatwaves and extremely hot days (Summer 2018/2019) (48%), droughts and flooding (42%) and urban water shortages (30%) ( [[#Merzian--2019|Merzian et al., 2019]] ). Rural populations in NSW perceive climate change impacts as stressing their well-being and mental health and requiring leadership and action ( [[#Austin--2020|Austin et al., 2020]] ). In New Zealand, between 2009 and 2018, the proportion of New Zealanders who agreed or strongly agreed that climate change is real increased from 58% to 78% (a 34.5% increase), while those agreeing or strongly agreeing that it was caused by humans increased from 41% to 64% (a 56.1% increase) ( [[#Milfont--2021|Milfont et al., 2021]] ). Nevertheless, New Zealanders have a tendency to overestimate the amount of sea level rise (SLR), especially among those most concerned about climate change and incorrectly associate it with melting sea ice, which has implications for engagement and communication strategies ( [[#Priestley--2021|Priestley et al., 2021]] ).

The use of more systemic, collaborative and future-oriented engagement approaches is facilitating adaptation in local contexts ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Rouse--2013|Rouse et al., 2013]] ; [[#MfE--2017a|MfE, 2017a]] ; [[#Leitch--2019|Leitch et al., 2019]] ). Local ‘adaptation champions’ and experimental and tailored engagement processes can enhance learning ( [[#McFadgen--2017|McFadgen and Huitema, 2017]] ; [[#Lindsay--2019|Lindsay et al., 2019]] ). Dynamic adaptive pathways planning ( [[#Lawrence--2019a|Lawrence et al., 2019a]] ) and inclusive community governance ( [[#Schneider--2020|Schneider et al., 2020]] ) can help progress difficult decisions such as the relocation of cultural assets and managed retreat, and contestation about which public goods to prioritise and how adaptation should be implemented ( [[#Kwakkel--2016|Kwakkel et al., 2016]] ) ( [[#Colliar--2018|Colliar and Blackett, 2018]] ). Participatory climate change scenario planning can test assumptions about the present and the future ( [[#Mitchell--2017|Mitchell et al., 2017]] ; [[#Serrao-Neumann--2018|Serrao-Neumann and Choy, 2018]] ; [[#Chambers--2019|Chambers et al., 2019]] ; [[#Serrao-Neumann--2019c|Serrao-Neumann et al., 2019c]] ) and help envision people-centred, place-based adaptation ( [[#Barnett--2014|Barnett et al., 2014]] ; [[#Lindsay--2019|Lindsay et al., 2019]] ). Social network analysis can inform engagement and communication of adaptation ( [[#Cunningham--2017|Cunningham et al., 2017]] ). Knowledge brokers, information portals and alliances can help communities, governments and sector groups to better access and use climate change information ( [[#Shaw--2013|Shaw et al., 2013]] ; [[#Fünfgeld--2015|Fünfgeld, 2015]] ; [[#Lawrence--2017|Lawrence and Haasnoot, 2017]] ). Novel approaches to building climate change literacy and adaptation capability go hand in hand with dedicated expert organisational support ( [[#Stevens--2015|Stevens and O’Connor, 2015]] ; [[#CCATWG--2018|CCATWG, 2018]] ; [[#Palutikof--2019c|Palutikof et al., 2019c]] ; [[#Salmon--2019|Salmon, 2019]] ). All of these approaches depend on adequate resourcing ( ''very high confidence'' ).

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==== 11.7.3.3 Knowledge Gaps and Implementation Enablers ====

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There are two priority areas where new knowledge is critical for accelerating adaptation implementation.

# ''System complexity and uncertainty in observed and projected impacts''
#* Regionally relevant projections of rainfall, runoff, compound and extreme weather (11.2.1, 11.3.3; Box 11.4)
#* Inclusion of cascading and compounding impacts in integrated assessments (11.5.1), including for infrastructure (11.3.5), tourism (11.3.7) and health (11.3.6) and for different groups, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and Tangata Whenua Māori communities (11.4)
#* Impacts on terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, including ''in situ'' monitoring to detect ongoing changes especially in New Zealand (11.3.1), and marine biodiversity, including environmental tolerances of key life stages (11.3.2)
#* Repository of indigenous species distribution data for monitoring responses to climate change and climate advisory services for New Zealand (11.3.1.3)
#* National risk assessment for Australia (11.7.1)
#* The interactions between adaptation and mitigation, particularly where land carbon mitigation is impacted by climate change (11.3.4.3; Box 11.5)
# ''Supporting adaptation decision making''
#* Better understanding of who and what is exposed and where and their vulnerability to climate hazards (11.3, 11.4)
#* National assessments of the costs and benefits of climate change, with and without different levels and timings of adaptation and mitigation (11.5.2.3) (11.7.1)
#* Understanding available adaptation strategies and options, their feasibility and effectiveness as the climate changes, including their intended and unintended outcomes (11.7, 11.8)
#* Understanding how to embed robust planning approaches into decision making that retain flexibility to change course in the future (11.7.1).
#* Mechanisms for sharing knowledge and practice of adaptation (11.7).
#* The role of development paradigms, values and political economy in adaptation framing and effective implementation (11.8).
#* Understanding social transitions and social licence, for timely, robust and transformational adaptation (11.8.2).

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