Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-3 (section)

==== 3.6.3.1 Degree of Implementation and Evidence of Effectiveness Across Sectors ====

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===== 3.6.3.1.1 Coastal community development and settlement =====

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Coastal adaptation often addresses the risk of flooding and erosion from SLR, changes in storm activity and degradation of coastal ecosystems and their services ( ''high confidence'' ) (Sections 3.4.2, 3.5; [[#Oppenheimer--2019|Oppenheimer et al., 2019]] ). Without coastal protection, people and property will be increasingly exposed to coastal flooding after 2050, especially under RCP8.5 (Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3; [[#Bevacqua--2020|Bevacqua et al., 2020]] ; [[#Kirezci--2020|Kirezci et al., 2020]] ). This section assesses adaptation responses for coastal ecosystems, addressing loss of natural coastal protection (Sections 3.4.2.1, 3.4.2.4–3.4.2.6), and the need for relocation ( [[#3.6.2.1|Section 3.6.2.1.2]] ). Adaptation responses specific to SLR are assessed in detail in Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3, while adaptation in coastal cities and settlements is assessed in Chapter 6.

Coastal conservation tends to involve cost-effective, low-impact actions that aim to support both adaptation and mitigation by conserving a wide array of ecosystem functions and services ( [[#Gattuso--2018|Gattuso et al., 2018]] ; [[#Gattuso--2021|Gattuso et al., 2021]] ), and that are achievable by nations with extensive coastlines or low-income status ( [[#Herr--2017|Herr et al., 2017]] ; [[#Taillardat--2018|Taillardat et al., 2018]] ). Where coastlines are undeveloped, the lowest-risk option is to avoid new development, but elsewhere, coastal conservation includes protection of key assets, accommodation of SLR, advancing defences seawards or upwards, or planned retreat from the coast (Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3).

Hard-engineered structures like seawalls are generally more costly than nature-based adaptations ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Hérivaux--2018|Hérivaux et al., 2018]] ; [[#Haasnoot--2019|Haasnoot et al., 2019]] ; [[#Nicholls--2019|Nicholls et al., 2019]] ; [[#Oppenheimer--2019|Oppenheimer et al., 2019]] ) and can lock communities into engineered responses in the future (Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3), creating trade-offs with mitigation goals, which constitutes maladaptation ( [[#Nunn--2021|Nunn et al., 2021]] ) that carries ecological and cultural costs (Sections 3.4.2.4, 3.4.2.6, 3.5.6). As a result, there is ''high agreement'' on the importance of shifting from hard infrastructure to soft infrastructure for coastal defence ( [[#Toimil--2020|Toimil et al., 2020]] ; [[#Nunn--2021|Nunn et al., 2021]] ). The common remedy for beach erosion is beach nourishment ( [[#Oppenheimer--2019|Oppenheimer et al., 2019]] ; [[#Pinto--2020|Pinto et al., 2020]] ; [[#Elko--2021|Elko et al., 2021]] ), which provides rapid results but poorly quantified trade-offs between efficacy, long-term cost, utility to beach users and ecological damage ( [[#de%20Schipper--2021|de Schipper et al., 2021]] ).

Since SROCC, coastal adaptation using NbS, like restoration of coastal vegetation, has advanced substantially ( [[#Cohen-Shacham--2019|Cohen-Shacham et al., 2019]] ; [[#Kuhl--2020|Kuhl et al., 2020]] ; [[#Kumar--2020|Kumar et al., 2020]] ; [[#Morris--2020a|Morris et al., 2020a]] ). Field and modelling studies confirm that wetland restoration and preservation are key actions to restore coastal protection and reduce community vulnerability to flooding ( ''very high confidenc'' e) (see also [[#3.6|Section 3.6]] ; Chapter 15; Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3; [[#Jones--2020|Jones et al., 2020]] ; [[#Menéndez--2020|Menéndez et al., 2020]] ; [[#Van%20Coppenolle--2020|Van Coppenolle and Temmerman, 2020]] ), while maintaining coastal ecosystem services ( [[#3.5|Section 3.5]] ). Restoring coral reefs, oyster reefs and mangroves ( [[#3.6.2.1|Section 3.6.2.1]] ) and protecting macrophyte meadows dissipates wave energy ( [[#3.4.2.1|Section 3.4.2.1]] ; [[#Yates--2017|Yates et al., 2017]] ; [[#Beck--2018|Beck et al., 2018]] ; [[#Wiberg--2019|Wiberg et al., 2019]] ; [[#Menéndez--2020|Menéndez et al., 2020]] ), accretes sediment and elevate shorelines, which reduces exposure to waves and storm surges, and offsets erosional losses ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Kench--2017|Kench and Mann, 2017]] ; [[#Pomeroy--2018|Pomeroy et al., 2018]] ; [[#Dasgupta--2019|Dasgupta et al., 2019]] ; [[#James--2019|James et al., 2019]] ; [[#Morris--2019|Morris et al., 2019]] ; [[#David--2020|David and Schlurmann, 2020]] ; [[#Masselink--2020|Masselink et al., 2020]] ). However, irreversible regime shifts in ocean ecosystems due to SLR and extreme events, such as MHWs, can limit or compromise restoration in the long term ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#3.4.3.3.3|Section 3.4.3.3.3]] ; Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3; [[#Marzloff--2016|Marzloff et al., 2016]] ; [[#Johnson--2017a|Johnson et al., 2017a]] ). Under all warming scenarios, coastal wetlands will be impacted by warming and MHWs (Sections 3.2.2.1, 3.2.4.5; Cross-Chapter Box 9.1 in WGI Chapter 9; [[#Fox-Kemper--2021|Fox-Kemper et al., 2021]] ), while also being pressed inland by RSLR ( [[#3.4.2.5|Section 3.4.2.5]] ; Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3). Therefore, restoration and conservation are more successful when non-climate drivers are also minimised ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Brodie--2020|Brodie et al., 2020]] ; [[#Duarte--2020|Duarte et al., 2020]] ; [[#Liu--2021|Liu et al., 2021]] ).

For highly exposed human settlements, migration is an adaptation option (e.g., for some island populations under extreme circumstances), but there are important uncertainties ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.3.4.6|Section 15.3.4.6]] ), as international regimes develop around human rights, migration ( [[#Scobie--2019a|Scobie, 2019a]] ), displacement (George [[#Puthucherril--2012|Puthucherril, 2012]] ) and the implications for national sovereignty ( [[#Yamamoto--2014|Yamamoto and Esteban, 2014]] ) of disappearing land spaces caused by climate change. Colonial power dynamics can influence climate-change responses (Chapter 18), for example, when external funders favour migration over local desires to adapt in place to preserve national identity and sovereignty ( [[#Bordner--2020|Bordner et al., 2020]] ). Examples of relocation within livelihoods’ customary land show some successes ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.3.4.6|Section 15.3.4.6]] ).

Evidence since SROCC (Section, 5.5.2.3.3; [[#Bindoff--2019a|Bindoff et al., 2019a]] ) continues to show that built infrastructure cannot address all of the adaptation challenges that coastal communities face. Coastal squeeze creates tensions between coastal development, armouring and habitat management (Sections 3.4.2.4–3.4.2.6). Managed realignment is the best option to reduce risks from SLR ( ''high confidence'' ) (Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3) but requires transformative changes in coastal development and settlement (Felipe [[#Pérez--2021|Pérez and Tomaselli, 2021]] ; [[#Fitton--2021|Fitton et al., 2021]] ; [[#Mach--2021|Mach and Siders, 2021]] ; [[#Siders--2021|Siders et al., 2021]] ). Implementation of protective measures varies among nations and lack of financial resources limits the options available ( ''very high confidence'' ) (Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3; [[#Hinkel--2018|Hinkel et al., 2018]] ; [[#Klöck--2019|Klöck and Nunn, 2019]] ).

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===== 3.6.3.1.2 Fisheries and mariculture =====

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SROCC ( [[#Bindoff--2019a|Bindoff et al., 2019a]] ) assessed adaptation in fisheries and mariculture (marine aquaculture), and socioeconomically focused updates are provided in [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.8.4|Section 5.8.4]] and Cross-Chapter Box MOVING SPECIES in Chapter 5. Here, we present a brief synthesis of how fisheries and mariculture adaptations interact with the natural environment, with further detail and supporting material in SM3.5.2.

Mobility allows fishing fleets and fishers to adapt to shifts in marine species distributions ( ''high agreement'' ) (Sections 3.4.3.1, 3.5.3; [[#Peck--2018|Peck and Pinnegar, 2018]] ; [[#Pinsky--2018|Pinsky et al., 2018]] ; [[#Frazão%20Santos--2020|Frazão Santos et al., 2020]] ) but with limits and unintended consequences ( [[#Pinsky--2012|Pinsky and Fogarty, 2012]] ; [[#Bell--2021|Bell et al., 2021]] ). Diversification of target species, harvest tactics and employment sectors, including transitions from fisheries to mariculture and ecotourism, allows some fishers to accommodate some impacts on their livelihoods ( [[#Miller--2018|Miller et al., 2018]] ; [[#Robinson--2020|Robinson et al., 2020]] ; [[#Gonzalez-Mon--2021|Gonzalez-Mon et al., 2021]] ). Technology and infrastructure adaptations can improve marine harvest efficiency, reduce risk and support resource management goals ( [[#Friedman--2020|Friedman et al., 2020]] ; [[#Bell--2021|Bell et al., 2021]] ; [[#Melbourne-Thomas--2021|Melbourne-Thomas et al., 2021]] ), but their ability to overcome climate-change impacts remains uncertain ( [[#Bell--2020|Bell et al., 2020]] ). Improving capacity to predict anomalous conditions in coastal and marine ecosystems ( [[#Jacox--2019|Jacox et al., 2019]] ; [[#Holbrook--2020|Holbrook et al., 2020]] ; [[#Jacox--2020|Jacox et al., 2020]] ), storm-driven flooding in reef-lined coasts ( [[#Scott--2020|Scott et al., 2020]] ; [[#Winter--2020|Winter et al., 2020]] ) and fisheries stocks ( [[#Payne--2017|Payne et al., 2017]] ; [[#Tommasi--2017|Tommasi et al., 2017]] ; [[#Muhling--2018|Muhling et al., 2018]] ) can improve forecasts of coastal and marine resources; these can enhance sustainability of wild-capture fisheries under climate change ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Blanchard--2017|Blanchard et al., 2017]] ; [[#Tommasi--2017|Tommasi et al., 2017]] ; [[#Pinsky--2020a|Pinsky et al., 2020a]] ; [[#Bell--2021|Bell et al., 2021]] ). Limiting overexploitation is the central goal of fishery management, and it ''very likely'' benefits fisheries adaptation to climate change ( [[#Burden--2019|Burden and Fujita, 2019]] ; [[#Free--2019|Free et al., 2019]] ; [[#Sumaila--2020|Sumaila and Tai, 2020]] ). Conventional tools include catch and size limits, spatial management and adaptive management. Ecosystem-based fisheries management outperforms single-species management ( [[#Fulton--2019|Fulton et al., 2019]] ), is widely legislated ( [[#Bryndum-Buchholz--2021|Bryndum-Buchholz et al., 2021]] ) and can reduce climate impacts in fisheries in the near-term, especially under low-emission scenarios ( [[#Karp--2019|Karp et al., 2019]] ; [[#Holsman--2020|Holsman et al., 2020]] ). Transboundary agreements on shifting fisheries will reduce the risk of overharvesting ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Gaines--2018|Gaines et al., 2018]] ). Permits tradable across political boundaries could also address this challenge, but ''limited evidence'' is available regarding their efficacy (Cross-Chapter Box MOVING SPECIES in Chapter 5; [[#Pinsky--2018|Pinsky et al., 2018]] ). Climate-smart conservation ( [[#3.6.3|Section 3.6.3]] 2.1) under the negotiations on areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) ( [[#Pinsky--2018|Pinsky et al., 2018]] ; [[#Tittensor--2019|Tittensor et al., 2019]] ; [[#Frazão%20Santos--2020|Frazão Santos et al., 2020]] ), and in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) areas designed as other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) ( [[#Tittensor--2019|Tittensor et al., 2019]] ), provide further benefits. Despite the potential for adaptive management to achieve sustainable fisheries, outcomes will ''very likely'' be inequitable ( [[#Gaines--2018|Gaines et al., 2018]] ; [[#Lam--2020|Lam et al., 2020]] ), with lower-income countries suffering the greater biomass and economic losses, increasing inequalities, especially under higher-emission scenarios ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Boyce--2020|Boyce et al., 2020]] ). Flexible and polycentric governance approaches have facilitated some short-term successes in achieving equitable, sustainable fisheries practices, but these may be challenging to implement where other governance systems, especially hierarchical systems, are well established ( [[#Cvitanovic--2018|Cvitanovic et al., 2018]] ; [[#Bell--2020|Bell et al., 2020]] ).

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===== 3.6.3.1.3 Tourism =====

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Coastal areas, coastal infrastructure and beaches, sustaining tourism that contributes significantly to local economies ( [[#James--2019|James et al., 2019]] ; [[#Ruiz-Ramírez--2019|Ruiz-Ramírez et al., 2019]] ), are under threat from development, SLR and increased wave energy during storms ( ''high confidence'' ) (Sections 3.4.2.4–3.4.2.6, 3.5.6, SM3.3.1; [[#Lithgow--2019|Lithgow et al., 2019]] ; [[#Ruiz-Ramírez--2019|Ruiz-Ramírez et al., 2019]] ). Engineered solutions, such as seawalls and revetments, have traditionally been used to address coastal erosion ( [[#3.6.3.1.1|Section 3.6.3.1.1]] ), but soft infrastructure approaches, including beach nourishment, submerged breakwaters and groins, and NbS ( [[#3.6.2.1|Section 3.6.2.1]] ), are becoming more common, partly due to demand from the tourism industry ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Pranzini--2018|Pranzini, 2018]] ; [[#Pranzini--2018|Pranzini et al., 2018]] ).

Elsewhere, interactions between tourism and climate impacts worsen outcomes for coastal and ocean environments ( [[#3.6.3.1.4|Section 3.6.3.1.4]] ). Climate change is opening up new cruise-ship routes in the Arctic ( [[#Sun--2018|Sun et al., 2018]] ), increasing the number of visitors and associated stressors, such as litter, to previously undisturbed areas ( [[#Anfuso--2020|Anfuso et al., 2020]] ; [[#Hovelsrud--2020|Hovelsrud et al., 2020]] ; [[#Suaria--2020|Suaria et al., 2020]] ). Risk reduction for cruise-ship tourism includes disaster response management, improved mapping and passenger codes of conduct ensuring social, cultural and ecological sustainability ( [[#Stewart--2015|Stewart et al., 2015]] ; [[#Dawson--2016|Dawson et al., 2016]] ).

Marine ecotourism, integrating conservation, education and provision of benefits to local communities ( [[#Donohoe--2006|Donohoe and Needham, 2006]] ) can provide significant economic benefits ( [[#Wabnitz--2019|Wabnitz, 2019]] ) and is among the most common livelihood alternatives to support both marine conservation and climate-change adaptation ( [[#Kutzner--2019|Kutzner, 2019]] ; [[#Pham--2020|Pham, 2020]] ; [[#Prasetyo--2020|Prasetyo et al., 2020]] ). Ecotourism can enhance social and political will for marine conservation ( [[#Cisneros-Montemayor--2014|Cisneros-Montemayor and Sumaila, 2014]] ) and facilitates integration of local and Indigenous Peoples in employment, ownership and industry governance. The community of Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, self-imposed an MPA and replaced fishing with ecotourism, which now generates millions of USD yr –1 , sustains locally owned and operated tour companies and has increased some fish populations tenfold ( [[#Knowlton--2020|Knowlton, 2020]] ). In Misool, Indonesia, local ecotourism incorporates IK by including local communities’ preferences and sustainable resource use ( [[#Prasetyo--2020|Prasetyo et al., 2020]] ).

Unintended consequences of ecotourism, such as detrimental ecological impacts on reefs ( [[#Giglio--2020|Giglio et al., 2020]] ), sharks, marine birds ( [[#Monti--2018|Monti et al., 2018]] ) and whales ( [[#Higham--2016|Higham et al., 2016]] ; [[#Barra--2020|Barra et al., 2020]] ; [[#Hoarau--2020|Hoarau et al., 2020]] ), can be minimised by relying on evidence-based management of associated activities ( [[#Blumstein--2017|Blumstein et al., 2017]] ). Public perception of climate-change connections to tourism can create obstacles ( [[#Meynecke--2017|Meynecke et al., 2017]] ; [[#Atzori--2018|Atzori et al., 2018]] ) such as deterring long-term investment in SIDS tourism initiatives ( [[#Santos-Lacueva--2017|Santos-Lacueva et al., 2017]] ), or benefits like inclining tourists to participate in conservation projects ( [[#Curnock--2019|Curnock et al., 2019]] ; [[#Miller--2020b|Miller et al., 2020b]] ; [[#Ziegler--2021|Ziegler et al., 2021]] ). Social and cultural networks may decrease climate vulnerability, as with Indigenous tourism operators in SIDS ( [[#Parsons--2018|Parsons et al., 2018]] ). Tourism-based adaptation can also be improved by equitable access to resources as well as recognition and inclusion of all stakeholders during policy planning and implementation. The principles of marine spatial planning ( [[#Papageorgiou--2016|Papageorgiou, 2016]] ) provide for effectively incorporating stakeholders and could inform development of activities to assess climate-associated risks (e.g., [[#Tzoraki--2018|Tzoraki et al., 2018]] ; [[#Loehr--2020|Loehr, 2020]] ). The recent decrease in global tourism due to the COVID-19 pandemic may offer opportunities to transform existing practices to more sustainable approaches (Cross-Chapter Box COVID in Chapter 7; [[#Gössling--2021|Gössling et al., 2021]] ).

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===== 3.6.3.1.4 Maritime transport =====

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Increased maritime transport and cruise-ship tourism in the Arctic are already impacting local and Indigenous Peoples, revealing conflicts over the uses of the ocean and the governance needed to support local people and a sustainable blue economy ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Debortoli--2019|Debortoli et al., 2019]] ; [[#Palma--2019|Palma et al., 2019]] ; [[#Berman--2020|Berman et al., 2020]] ; [[#Dundas--2020|Dundas et al., 2020]] ). While shipping and its associated environmental impacts are projected to grow ( [[#Palma--2019|Palma et al., 2019]] ; [[#Dawson--2020|Dawson et al., 2020]] ), adaptation efforts are only at the planning stage ( [[#Debortoli--2019|Debortoli et al., 2019]] ). Increased Arctic traffic due to ice loss can benefit trade, transportation and tourism ( ''medium confidence'' ), but will also affect Arctic marine ecosystems and livelihoods ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Palma--2019|Palma et al., 2019]] ; [[#Dawson--2020|Dawson et al., 2020]] ). Increasing search-and-rescue activities ( [[#Ford--2019|Ford and Clark, 2019]] ) reveal capacity gaps to support future demands ( [[#Ford--2019|Ford and Clark, 2019]] ; [[#Palma--2019|Palma et al., 2019]] ). The Low-Impact Shipping Corridors initiative has been developed as an adaptation strategy in the Arctic, although with limited inclusion of IKLK ( [[#Dawson--2020|Dawson et al., 2020]] ).

Relative SLR and the increased frequency and severity of storms are already affecting port activity, infrastructure and supply chains, sometimes disrupting trade and transport ( [[#Monios--2020|Monios and Wilmsmeier, 2020]] ), but these hazards are not systematically incorporated into adaptation planning ( ''medium evidence'' ) ( [[#Monios--2020|Monios and Wilmsmeier, 2020]] ; [[#O’Keeffe--2020|O’Keeffe et al., 2020]] ). Climate-change impacts that increase food insecurity, income loss and poverty can exacerbate maritime criminal activity, including illegal fishing, drug trafficking or piracy ( ''medium evidence'' ) ( [[#Germond--2019|Germond and Mazaris, 2019]] ). A transformational adaptation approach to address climate impacts on maritime activities and increase security ( [[#Germond--2019|Germond and Mazaris, 2019]] ) would relocate ports, change centres of demand, reduce shipping distances or shorten supply chains ( ''medium agreement'' ) ( [[#Walsh--2019|Walsh et al., 2019]] ; [[#Monios--2020|Monios and Wilmsmeier, 2020]] ) as well as decrease marginalisation of vulnerable groups, develop polycentric governance systems and eliminate maladaptive environmental policies and resource loss ( [[#Belhabib--2020|Belhabib et al., 2020]] ; [[#O’Keeffe--2020|O’Keeffe et al., 2020]] ).

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===== 3.6.3.1.5 Human health =====

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Health-focused adaptations to climate-driven changes in ocean and coastal water quality ( [[#3.5.5.3|Section 3.5.5.3]] ) leverage mainly technology and infrastructure ( [[#3.6.2.2|Section 3.6.2.2]] ) to improve water-quality monitoring and forecasting to inform socio-institutional adaptation ( [[#3.6.2.1|Section 3.6.2.1]] ) and NbS ( [[#3.6.2.3|Section 3.6.2.3]] ). Seafood quality and safety are decreasing due to climate-driven increases in marine-borne diseases (Cross-Chapter Box ILLNESS in Chapter 2), toxic HABs or toxin bioaccumulation ( ''high agreement'' ) ( [[#Karagas--2012|Karagas et al., 2012]] ; [[#Krabbenhoft--2013|Krabbenhoft and Sunderland, 2013]] ; [[#Rafaj--2013|Rafaj et al., 2013]] ; [[#Curtis--2019|Curtis et al., 2019]] ; [[#Schartup--2019|Schartup et al., 2019]] ; [[#Thackray--2019|Thackray and Sunderland, 2019]] ). Future exposure to seafood-borne contaminants also depends partly on consumers’ seafood preferences ( [[#Elsayed--2020|Elsayed et al., 2020]] ) and seafood supply ( [[#Sunderland--2018|Sunderland et al., 2018]] ). Reducing this risk by decreasing seafood consumption increases the risk of eating less nutritious foods, and loss of cultural practices (Chapter 5; Cross-Chapter Box MOVING SPECIES in Chapter 5; [[#Donatuto--2011|Donatuto et al., 2011]] ; [[#Bindoff--2019a|Bindoff et al., 2019a]] ). Models incorporating high-resolution satellite images, field survey data, meteorological observations and historical records can provide early-warning forecasts of HABs or conditions that favour microbial pathogen outbreaks (Cross-Chapter Box ILLNESS in Chapter 2; [[#Semenza--2017|Semenza et al., 2017]] ; [[#Franks--2018|Franks, 2018]] ; [[#Hattenrath-Lehmann--2018|Hattenrath-Lehmann et al., 2018]] ; [[#Borbor-Cordova--2019|Borbor-Cordova et al., 2019]] ; [[#Davis--2019|Davis et al., 2019]] ; [[#Campbell--2020a|Campbell et al., 2020a]] ; [[#Davidson--2021|Davidson et al., 2021]] ). Forecasts facilitate preventive public health measures ( [[#World%20Health%20Organisation%20and%20United%20Nations%20Children’s%20Fund--2017|World Health Organisation and United Nations Children’s Fund, 2017]] ), or seafood harvest guidance ( [[#Maguire--2016|Maguire et al., 2016]] ; [[#Leadbetter--2018|Leadbetter et al., 2018]] ; [[#Anderson--2019|Anderson et al., 2019]] ; [[#Bolin--2021|Bolin et al., 2021]] ), reducing risks of disease outbreaks, waste and contaminated seafood entering the market ( ''medium confidence'' ) (Cross-Chapter Box ILLNESS in Chapter 2; [[#Nichols--2018|Nichols et al., 2018]] ). Monitoring of water quality and seafood safety (Cross-Chapter Box ILLNESS in Chapter 2), paired with effective public communication and education ( [[#Ekstrom--2020|Ekstrom et al., 2020]] ), inform individual and local adaptations, including use of (a) personal protective equipment, (b) seafood selection and preparation ( [[#Elsayed--2020|Elsayed et al., 2020]] ; [[#Froelich--2020|Froelich and Daines, 2020]] ; [[#Fielding--2021|Fielding et al., 2021]] ), (c) income diversification ( [[#3.6.2.1|Section 3.6.2.1]] ; [[#Moore--2020b|Moore et al., 2020b]] ), (d) public education ( [[#Borbor-Cordova--2019|Borbor-Cordova et al., 2019]] ) or (e) community-level actions to decrease risk from coastal aquifer and soil salinisation ( [[#Slama--2020|Slama et al., 2020]] ; [[#Mastrocicco--2021|Mastrocicco and Colombani, 2021]] ), HAB toxins ( [[#Ekstrom--2020|Ekstrom et al., 2020]] ) and other contaminants (e.g., methylmercury, metals, persistent organic pollutants) in seafood ( [[#Chan--2021|Chan et al., 2021]] ). A full assessment of climate-change impacts on human health is found in [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-7|Chapter 7]] and Cross-Chapter Box ILLNESS in Chapter 2.

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