Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-3 (section)

===== 3.6.3.1.3 Tourism =====

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Coastal areas, coastal infrastructure and beaches, sustaining tourism that contributes significantly to local economies ( [[#James--2019|James et al., 2019]] ; [[#Ruiz-Ramírez--2019|Ruiz-Ramírez et al., 2019]] ), are under threat from development, SLR and increased wave energy during storms ( ''high confidence'' ) (Sections 3.4.2.4–3.4.2.6, 3.5.6, SM3.3.1; [[#Lithgow--2019|Lithgow et al., 2019]] ; [[#Ruiz-Ramírez--2019|Ruiz-Ramírez et al., 2019]] ). Engineered solutions, such as seawalls and revetments, have traditionally been used to address coastal erosion ( [[#3.6.3.1.1|Section 3.6.3.1.1]] ), but soft infrastructure approaches, including beach nourishment, submerged breakwaters and groins, and NbS ( [[#3.6.2.1|Section 3.6.2.1]] ), are becoming more common, partly due to demand from the tourism industry ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Pranzini--2018|Pranzini, 2018]] ; [[#Pranzini--2018|Pranzini et al., 2018]] ).

Elsewhere, interactions between tourism and climate impacts worsen outcomes for coastal and ocean environments ( [[#3.6.3.1.4|Section 3.6.3.1.4]] ). Climate change is opening up new cruise-ship routes in the Arctic ( [[#Sun--2018|Sun et al., 2018]] ), increasing the number of visitors and associated stressors, such as litter, to previously undisturbed areas ( [[#Anfuso--2020|Anfuso et al., 2020]] ; [[#Hovelsrud--2020|Hovelsrud et al., 2020]] ; [[#Suaria--2020|Suaria et al., 2020]] ). Risk reduction for cruise-ship tourism includes disaster response management, improved mapping and passenger codes of conduct ensuring social, cultural and ecological sustainability ( [[#Stewart--2015|Stewart et al., 2015]] ; [[#Dawson--2016|Dawson et al., 2016]] ).

Marine ecotourism, integrating conservation, education and provision of benefits to local communities ( [[#Donohoe--2006|Donohoe and Needham, 2006]] ) can provide significant economic benefits ( [[#Wabnitz--2019|Wabnitz, 2019]] ) and is among the most common livelihood alternatives to support both marine conservation and climate-change adaptation ( [[#Kutzner--2019|Kutzner, 2019]] ; [[#Pham--2020|Pham, 2020]] ; [[#Prasetyo--2020|Prasetyo et al., 2020]] ). Ecotourism can enhance social and political will for marine conservation ( [[#Cisneros-Montemayor--2014|Cisneros-Montemayor and Sumaila, 2014]] ) and facilitates integration of local and Indigenous Peoples in employment, ownership and industry governance. The community of Cabo Pulmo, Mexico, self-imposed an MPA and replaced fishing with ecotourism, which now generates millions of USD yr –1 , sustains locally owned and operated tour companies and has increased some fish populations tenfold ( [[#Knowlton--2020|Knowlton, 2020]] ). In Misool, Indonesia, local ecotourism incorporates IK by including local communities’ preferences and sustainable resource use ( [[#Prasetyo--2020|Prasetyo et al., 2020]] ).

Unintended consequences of ecotourism, such as detrimental ecological impacts on reefs ( [[#Giglio--2020|Giglio et al., 2020]] ), sharks, marine birds ( [[#Monti--2018|Monti et al., 2018]] ) and whales ( [[#Higham--2016|Higham et al., 2016]] ; [[#Barra--2020|Barra et al., 2020]] ; [[#Hoarau--2020|Hoarau et al., 2020]] ), can be minimised by relying on evidence-based management of associated activities ( [[#Blumstein--2017|Blumstein et al., 2017]] ). Public perception of climate-change connections to tourism can create obstacles ( [[#Meynecke--2017|Meynecke et al., 2017]] ; [[#Atzori--2018|Atzori et al., 2018]] ) such as deterring long-term investment in SIDS tourism initiatives ( [[#Santos-Lacueva--2017|Santos-Lacueva et al., 2017]] ), or benefits like inclining tourists to participate in conservation projects ( [[#Curnock--2019|Curnock et al., 2019]] ; [[#Miller--2020b|Miller et al., 2020b]] ; [[#Ziegler--2021|Ziegler et al., 2021]] ). Social and cultural networks may decrease climate vulnerability, as with Indigenous tourism operators in SIDS ( [[#Parsons--2018|Parsons et al., 2018]] ). Tourism-based adaptation can also be improved by equitable access to resources as well as recognition and inclusion of all stakeholders during policy planning and implementation. The principles of marine spatial planning ( [[#Papageorgiou--2016|Papageorgiou, 2016]] ) provide for effectively incorporating stakeholders and could inform development of activities to assess climate-associated risks (e.g., [[#Tzoraki--2018|Tzoraki et al., 2018]] ; [[#Loehr--2020|Loehr, 2020]] ). The recent decrease in global tourism due to the COVID-19 pandemic may offer opportunities to transform existing practices to more sustainable approaches (Cross-Chapter Box COVID in Chapter 7; [[#Gössling--2021|Gössling et al., 2021]] ).

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