Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-11 (section)

== Frequently Asked Questions ==

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=== FAQ 11.1 | How is climate change affecting Australia and New Zealand? ===

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''Climate change is affecting Australia and New Zealand in profound ways. Some natural systems of cultural, environmental, social and economic significance are at risk of irreversible change. The socioeconomic costs of climate change are substantial, with impacts that cascade and compound across sectors and regions, as demonstrated by heatwaves, wildfire, cyclone, drought and flood events.''

Temperature has increased by 1.4°C in Australia and 1.1°C in New Zealand over the last 110 years, with more extreme hot days. The oceans in the region have warmed significantly, resulting in longer and more frequent marine heatwaves. Sea levels have risen and the oceans have become more acidic. Snow depths have declined and glaciers have receded. Northwestern Australia and most of southern New Zealand have become wetter, while southern Australia and most of northern New Zealand have become drier. The frequency, severity and duration of extreme wildfire weather conditions have increased in southern and eastern Australia and northeastern New Zealand.

The impacts of climate change on marine, terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems and species are evident. The mass mortality of corals throughout the Great Barrier Reef during marine heatwaves in 2016–2020 is a striking example. Climate change has contributed to the unprecedented south-eastern Australia wildfires in the spring and summer of 2019–2020, loss of alpine habitats in Australia, extensive loss of kelp forests, shifts further south in the distribution of almost 200 marine species, decline and extinction in some vertebrate species in the Australian wet tropics, expansion of invasive plants, animals and pathogens in New Zealand, erosion and flooding of coastal habitats in New Zealand, river flow decline in southern Australia, increased stress in rural communities, insurance losses for floods in New Zealand, increase in heatwave mortalities in Australian capital cities and fish deaths in the Murray-Darling River in the summer of 2018–2019.

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=== FAQ 11.2 | What systems in Australia and New Zealand are most at risk from ongoing climate change? ===

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''The nine key risks to human systems and ecosystems in Australia and New Zealand from ongoing climate change are shown in Figure FAQ 11.2.1. Some risks, especially on ecosystems, are now difficult to avoid. Other risks can be reduced by adaptation if global mitigation is effective.''

Risk is the combination of hazard, exposure and vulnerability. For a given hazard (e.g., fire), the risk will be greater in areas with high exposure (e.g., many houses) and/or high vulnerability (e.g., remote communities with limited escape routes). The severity and type of climate risk varies geographically (Figure FAQ11.2.1). Everyone will be affected by climate change, with disadvantaged and remote people and communities the most vulnerable.

The risks to natural and human systems are often compounded by impacts across multiple spatial and temporal scales. For example, fires damage property, farms, forests and nature with short- and long-term effects on biodiversity, natural resources, human health, communities and the economy. Major impacts across multiple sectors can disrupt supply chains to industries and communities and constrain delivery of health, energy, water and food services. These impacts create challenges for the adaptation and governance of climate risks. When combined, they have far-reaching socioeconomic and environmental impacts.

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[[File:138a02314416fa6fd9416df14811d012 IPCC_AR6_WGII_Figure_11_FAQ_11_2_1.png]]

Figure FAQ11.2.1 | Key risks from climate change

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=== FAQ 11.3 | How can Indigenous Peoples’ knowledge and practice help us understand contemporary climate impacts and inform adaptation in Australia and New Zealand? ===

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''In Australia and New Zealand, as with many places around the world, Indigenous Peoples with connections to their traditional country and extensive histories hold deep knowledge from observing and living in a changing climate. This provides insights that inform adaptation to climate change.''

Indigenous Australians—Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders—maintain knowledge regarding previous sea level rise, climate patterns and shifts in seasonal change associated with the flowering of trees and emergence of food sources, developed over thousands of generations of observation of their traditional country. Knowledge of localised contemporary adaptation is also held by many Indigenous Australians with connections to traditional lands. With assured free and prior informed consent, this provides a means for Indigenous-guided land management, including for fire management and carbon abatement, fauna studies, medicinal plant products, threatened species recovery, water management and weed management.

Tangata Whenua Māori in New Zealand are grounded in Mātauranga Māori knowledge, which is based on human–nature relationships and ecological integrity and incorporates practices used to detect and anticipate changes taking place in the environment. Social-cultural networks and conventions that promote collective action and mutual support are central features of many Māori communities and these customary approaches are critical to responding to, and recovering from, adverse environmental conditions. Intergenerational approaches to planning for the future are also intrinsic to Māori social-cultural organisation and are expected to become increasingly important, elevating political discussions about conceptions of rationality, diversity and the rights of non-human entities in climate change policy and adaptation.

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=== FAQ 11.4 | How can Australia and New Zealand adapt to climate change? ===

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''There is already work under way by governments, businesses, communities and Indigenous Peoples to help us adapt to climate change. However, much more adaptation is needed in light of the ongoing and intensifying climate risks. This includes coordinated laws, plans, guidance and funding that enable society to adapt and the information, education and training that can support it. Everyone has a part to play working together''

We currently mainly react to climate events such as wildfires, heatwaves, floods and droughts and generally rebuild in the same places. However, climate change is making these events more frequent and intense, and ongoing sea level rise and changes in natural ecosystems are advancing. Better coordination and collaboration between government agencies, communities, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders and Tangata Whenua Indigenous Peoples, not-for-profit organisations and businesses will help prepare for these climate impacts more proactively, in combination with future climate risks integrated into their decisions and planning. This will reduce the impacts we experience now and the risks that will affect future generations.

Some of the risks for natural systems are close to critical thresholds and adaptation may be unable to prevent ecosystem collapse. Other risks will be severe, but we can reduce their impact by acting now, for example coastal flooding from sea level rise, heat-related mortality and managing water stresses. Many of the risks have the potential to cascade across social and economic sectors with widespread societal impacts. In such cases, really significant system-wide changes will be needed in the way we currently live and govern. To facilitate such changes, new governance frameworks, nationally consistent and accessible information, collaborative engagement and partnerships with all sectors, communities and Indigenous Peoples and the resources to address the risks are needed (Figure FAQ11.4.1).

However, our ability to adapt to climate change impacts also rests on every region in the world playing its part in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. If mitigation is ineffective, global warming will be rapid and adaptation costs will increase, with worsening losses and damages.

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[[File:7ee5d9513a718931fee748b7339edd38 IPCC_AR6_WGII_Figure_11_FAQ_11_4_1.png]]

Figure FAQ11.4.1 | Developing adaptation plans in the solutions space showing system tipping points, thresholds and limits to adaptation, unsustainable pathways, critical systems and enablers to climate resilient development

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