Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-5 (section)

==== 5.9.4.3 Farm site selection, infrastructure and husbandry ====

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Land-based aquaculture systems including hatcheries may reduce exposure to climatic extremes (due to better control of the culture environment), limit water usage, reduce juvenile reliance and buffer climate effects using optimal diets ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Barton--2015|Barton et al., 2015]] ; [[#Reid--2019|Reid et al., 2019]] ; [[#Cominassi--2020|Cominassi et al., 2020]] ). However, land-based aquaculture requires large capital and operational costs and use of land, increasing conflicts between land and water use, have increased energy demands (increasing GHG if fossil fuels are the primary energy source), require necessary expertise and will not reduce outgrowing exposures ( ''high confidence'' ) (see [[#5.13|Section 5.13]] , [[#Beveridge--2018b|Beveridge et al., 2018b]] ; [[#Soto--2018|Soto et al., 2018]] ; [[#Tillotson--2019|Tillotson et al., 2019]] ; [[#Costello--2020|Costello et al., 2020]] ; Prakoso et al., 2020).

Geographical selection of marine farm sites may prevent climate productivity declines ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Froehlich--2018a|Froehlich et al., 2018a]] ; [[#Sainz--2019|Sainz et al., 2019]] ; [[#Oyinlola--2020|Oyinlola et al., 2020]] ), particularly for temperature-related mortality hotspots ( [[#Garrabou--2019|Garrabou et al., 2019]] ), HAB occurrences ( [[#Dabbadie--2018|Dabbadie et al., 2018]] ) or extreme events ( [[#Liu--2020|Liu et al., 2020]] ; [[#Wu--2020|Wu et al., 2020]] ). However, while downscaled climate forecasts facilitate localised adaptation planning ( [[#Falconer--2020a|Falconer et al., 2020a]] ), such projections are rare ( [[#Whitney--2020|Whitney et al., 2020]] ). GIS can be used for climate adaptive planning along with routine site assessments ( [[#Falconer--2020b|Falconer et al., 2020b]] ; [[#Galappaththi--2020b|Galappaththi et al., 2020b]] ; [[#Jayanthi--2020|Jayanthi et al., 2020]] ). Building coastal protection, stronger cages and mooring systems, and deeper ponds and using sheltered bays can reduce escapees and mortalities related to flooding, increased storms and extreme events ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Dabbadie--2018|Dabbadie et al., 2018]] ; [[#Bricknell--2021|Bricknell et al., 2021]] ; [[#Kais--2021|Kais and Islam, 2021]] ). Inshore aquaculture in low-lying areas prone to sea level salinity intrusion (e.g., Mekong delta and Viet Nam) have already implemented adaptation measures, such as conversion of land to mixed plant–animal systems ( [[#Nguyen--2019a|Nguyen et al., 2019a]] ), conversion of freshwater ponds to brackish or saline aquaculture ( [[#Galappaththi--2020b|Galappaththi et al., 2020b]] ), building of dams and dykes ( [[#Renaud--2015|Renaud et al., 2015]] ) and intensification of shrimp or fish pond culture to reduce water and land usage ( [[#Nguyen--2019b|Nguyen et al., 2019b]] ; [[#Johnson--2020|Johnson et al., 2020]] ). Other adaptation options for limited water supply are government equitable water allocations and water storage ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Bunting--2017|Bunting et al., 2017]] ; [[#Galappaththi--2020b|Galappaththi et al., 2020b]] ).

Feed formulations and improved feed conversion can reduce climate-associated stress for freshwater species, significantly reducing waste and increase sustainability ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#FAO--2018c|FAO, 2018c]] ; [[#Gasco--2018|Gasco et al., 2018]] ; [[#Chen--2019|Chen and Villoria, 2019]] ). Projected decreases in fish meal and global targets of limiting warming to under 2°C may increase the ratio of plant-based diets but reduce fish nutritional content (see Sections 5.10 and 5.13, [[#Hasan--2017|Hasan and Soto, 2017]] ; [[#Johnson--2020|Johnson et al., 2020]] ). Companies provide insurance in major production areas, but aquaculture is considered high risk with large levels of small claims ( [[#Secretan--2007|Secretan et al., 2007]] ). Insurance covers natural disasters and disease, helping to reduce and cope with climate-induced risk, enabling faster livelihood recoveries and preventing poverty ( ''high agreement'' , ''limited evidence'' ) ( [[#Xinhua--2017|Xinhua et al., 2017]] ; [[#Kalikoski--2018|Kalikoski et al., 2018]] ; [[#Soto--2018|Soto et al., 2018]] ). For example, small-scale shrimp farmers were willing to pay higher premiums to manage risk, after participation in government pilot insurance schemes, ensuring greater pay-outs if a mortality event occurred ( [[#Nyguyen--2016|Nyguyen and Pongthanapanic, 2016]] ; [[#Pongthanapanic--2019|Pongthanapanic et al., 2019]] ). Technological innovations are more widely implemented in larger operations, with Internet access promoting adoption at the farm site ( [[#Joffre--2017|Joffre et al., 2017]] ; [[#Salazar--2018|Salazar et al., 2018]] ). Improved farm management is a key opportunity ( ''high confidence'' ) to reduce climate risks on aquaculture, where Best Management Practices can increase resiliency ( [[#Soto--2018|Soto et al., 2018]] ) and lower additional risk from non-climatic stressors ( [[#Gattuso--2018|Gattuso et al., 2018]] ; [[#Smith--2020|Smith and Bernard, 2020]] ), and decision-tree frameworks can provide adaptation choices when events occur ( [[#Nguyen--2016|Nguyen et al., 2016]] ).

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