IPCC:AR6/WGI/Chapter-Atlas - Revision history

Laura at 08:37, 22 May 2026

2026-05-22T08:37:23Z

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			\| prevurl = IPCC:AR6/WGI/Chapter-12
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Laura: Laura moved page IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Atlas to IPCC:AR6/WGI/Chapter-Atlas without leaving a redirect

2026-05-18T16:16:11Z

Laura moved page IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Atlas to IPCC:AR6/WGI/Chapter-Atlas without leaving a redirect

← Older revision	Revision as of 16:16, 18 May 2026
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Laura: #119

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	Cross-Chapter Box [[#Atlas.2\|Atlas.2]]		Cross-Chapter Box [[#Atlas.2\|Atlas.2]]

	~~'''~~'''Regional context'''~~'''~~		'''Regional context'''

	Small Islands are predominantly located in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans, and in the Caribbean ( [[#Nurse--2014\|Nurse et al., 2014]] ; [[#Shultz--2019\|Shultz et al., 2019]] ). They are characterized by their small physical size, being surrounded by large ocean expanses, vulnerability to natural disasters and extreme events, and relative isolation ( [[IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Chapter-12#12.4.7\|Section 12.4.7]] , [[#Atlas.10\|Atlas.10]] and Glossary; [[#Nurse--2014\|Nurse et al., 2014]] ). These and nearby larger islands (e.g., Madagascar and Cuba) are often water-scarce with low water volumes due to increasing demand (from population growth and tourism), aging and poorly designed infrastructure ( [[#Burns--2002\|Burns, 2002]] ), and decreasing supply (from pollution, changes in precipitation patterns, drought, saltwater intrusion, regional sea level rise, inadequate water governance ( [[#Belmar--2016\|Belmar et al., 2016]] ; [[#Mycoo--2018\|Mycoo, 2018]] ) and competing and conflicting uses ( [[IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.1.1.1\|Section 8.1.1.1]] ; [[#Cashman--2014\|Cashman, 2014]] ; [[#Gheuens--2019\|Gheuens et al., 2019]] ). In the Caribbean, groundwater is the main freshwater source and depends strongly on rainfall variability ( [[#Post--2018\|Post et al., 2018]] ), while rain, ground or surface water are the primary sources for the Pacific Islands depending on island type (volcanic or atoll), size and quality of groundwater reserves ( [[#Burns--2002\|Burns, 2002]] ). Groundwater pumping and increasing sea levels also affect water availability by increasing the salinity of the aquifer (e.g., [[#Bailey--2015\|Bailey et al., 2015]] , 2016), thus reinforcing negative drought effects from reduced rainfall and increased evaporative demand from higher temperatures. For example, in 54% of the Marshall Islands, groundwater is highly vulnerable to droughts ( [[#Barkey--2017\|Barkey and Bailey, 2017]] ).		Small Islands are predominantly located in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans, and in the Caribbean ( [[#Nurse--2014\|Nurse et al., 2014]] ; [[#Shultz--2019\|Shultz et al., 2019]] ). They are characterized by their small physical size, being surrounded by large ocean expanses, vulnerability to natural disasters and extreme events, and relative isolation ( [[IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Chapter-12#12.4.7\|Section 12.4.7]] , [[#Atlas.10\|Atlas.10]] and Glossary; [[#Nurse--2014\|Nurse et al., 2014]] ). These and nearby larger islands (e.g., Madagascar and Cuba) are often water-scarce with low water volumes due to increasing demand (from population growth and tourism), aging and poorly designed infrastructure ( [[#Burns--2002\|Burns, 2002]] ), and decreasing supply (from pollution, changes in precipitation patterns, drought, saltwater intrusion, regional sea level rise, inadequate water governance ( [[#Belmar--2016\|Belmar et al., 2016]] ; [[#Mycoo--2018\|Mycoo, 2018]] ) and competing and conflicting uses ( [[IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.1.1.1\|Section 8.1.1.1]] ; [[#Cashman--2014\|Cashman, 2014]] ; [[#Gheuens--2019\|Gheuens et al., 2019]] ). In the Caribbean, groundwater is the main freshwater source and depends strongly on rainfall variability ( [[#Post--2018\|Post et al., 2018]] ), while rain, ground or surface water are the primary sources for the Pacific Islands depending on island type (volcanic or atoll), size and quality of groundwater reserves ( [[#Burns--2002\|Burns, 2002]] ). Groundwater pumping and increasing sea levels also affect water availability by increasing the salinity of the aquifer (e.g., [[#Bailey--2015\|Bailey et al., 2015]] , 2016), thus reinforcing negative drought effects from reduced rainfall and increased evaporative demand from higher temperatures. For example, in 54% of the Marshall Islands, groundwater is highly vulnerable to droughts ( [[#Barkey--2017\|Barkey and Bailey, 2017]] ).

	~~'''~~'''The climate of Small Islands and findings from previous IPCC assessments'''~~'''~~		'''The climate of Small Islands and findings from previous IPCC assessments'''

	Intra-seasonal to interannual rainfall in the Caribbean and in the Indian and Pacific oceans is influenced by the trade winds, the passage of tropical cyclones (TCs), Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO), easterly waves, migrations of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the North Atlantic Subtropical High (NASH) for the Caribbean; the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ) and western North Pacific summer monsoon for the Pacific; and the South Asian monsoons for the Indian Ocean. The relevant dominant modes of climate variability ( [[IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.3.2.9\|Section 8.3.2.9]] and Annex IV) are El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) which have been associated with extreme events in the islands (Annex IV; [[#Stephenson--2014\|Stephenson et al., 2014]] ; [[#Kruk--2015\|Kruk et al., 2015]] ; [[#Frazier--2018\|Frazier et al., 2018]] ). The modes of climate variability are modulated by Pacific Decadal Variability (PDV), Inter-decadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO) and Atlantic Multi-decadal Variability (AMV). These modes show no sustained trend since the late 19th century ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.4\|Section 2.4]] ).		Intra-seasonal to interannual rainfall in the Caribbean and in the Indian and Pacific oceans is influenced by the trade winds, the passage of tropical cyclones (TCs), Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO), easterly waves, migrations of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the North Atlantic Subtropical High (NASH) for the Caribbean; the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ) and western North Pacific summer monsoon for the Pacific; and the South Asian monsoons for the Indian Ocean. The relevant dominant modes of climate variability ( [[IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.3.2.9\|Section 8.3.2.9]] and Annex IV) are El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) which have been associated with extreme events in the islands (Annex IV; [[#Stephenson--2014\|Stephenson et al., 2014]] ; [[#Kruk--2015\|Kruk et al., 2015]] ; [[#Frazier--2018\|Frazier et al., 2018]] ). The modes of climate variability are modulated by Pacific Decadal Variability (PDV), Inter-decadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO) and Atlantic Multi-decadal Variability (AMV). These modes show no sustained trend since the late 19th century ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.4\|Section 2.4]] ).

	The AR5 WGI reports observed temperature increases of 0.1°C–0.2°C per decade in the Pacific Islands with these trends ''very likely'' to continue under high emissions, and projects a drier rainy season for many islands in the south-west Pacific ( [[#Christensen--2013\|Christensen et al., 2013]] ). The AR5 WGII reports rainfall reductions over the Caribbean, increases over the Seychelles, streamflow reductions over the Hawaiian Islands and saltwater intrusion into groundwater reserves in the Pacific Islands resulting from storm surges and high tides ( [[#Nurse--2014\|Nurse et al., 2014]] ). The SROCC ( [[#IPCC--2019a\|IPCC, 2019a]] ) finds ''very high confidence'' that global mean sea level rise has accelerated in recent decades which has exacerbated extreme sea level events and flooding ( ''high confidence'' ). It will continue to rise with consequent increases in extreme levels so that the historical one-in-a-century extreme local sea level will become an annual event by the end of the century under all RCP scenarios ( ''high confidence'' ). In particular, many Small Islands are projected to experience historical centennial events at least annually by 2050 under RCP2.6, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 emissions. The proportion of Category 4 and 5 TCs and associated precipitation rates along with their average intensity are projected to increase with a 2°C global temperature rise which will further increase the magnitude of resultant storm surges and flooding. The SROCC Cross-Chapter Box on Low-lying Islands and Coasts ( [[#Magnan--2019\|Magnan et al., 2019]] ) focused on sea level rise and oceanic changes and their impacts, therefore the assessment presented here on climate changes relevant to water resources, including precipitation and temperature, is complementary.		The AR5 WGI reports observed temperature increases of 0.1°C–0.2°C per decade in the Pacific Islands with these trends ''very likely'' to continue under high emissions, and projects a drier rainy season for many islands in the south-west Pacific ( [[#Christensen--2013\|Christensen et al., 2013]] ). The AR5 WGII reports rainfall reductions over the Caribbean, increases over the Seychelles, streamflow reductions over the Hawaiian Islands and saltwater intrusion into groundwater reserves in the Pacific Islands resulting from storm surges and high tides ( [[#Nurse--2014\|Nurse et al., 2014]] ). The SROCC ( [[#IPCC--2019a\|IPCC, 2019a]] ) finds ''very high confidence'' that global mean sea level rise has accelerated in recent decades which has exacerbated extreme sea level events and flooding ( ''high confidence'' ). It will continue to rise with consequent increases in extreme levels so that the historical one-in-a-century extreme local sea level will become an annual event by the end of the century under all RCP scenarios ( ''high confidence'' ). In particular, many Small Islands are projected to experience historical centennial events at least annually by 2050 under RCP2.6, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 emissions. The proportion of Category 4 and 5 TCs and associated precipitation rates along with their average intensity are projected to increase with a 2°C global temperature rise which will further increase the magnitude of resultant storm surges and flooding. The SROCC Cross-Chapter Box on Low-lying Islands and Coasts ( [[#Magnan--2019\|Magnan et al., 2019]] ) focused on sea level rise and oceanic changes and their impacts, therefore the assessment presented here on climate changes relevant to water resources, including precipitation and temperature, is complementary.

	~~'''~~'''Observations and attribution of changes'''~~'''~~		'''Observations and attribution of changes'''

	Cross-Chapter Box [[#Atlas.2\|Atlas.2]] : presents an overview of observed sub-regional trends relevant to water resources in some Small Islands and island regions largely from 1951. Some general observed climate trends include higher magnitude and frequency of temperatures including warm extremes ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Chapter-12#12.4.7.1\|Section 12.4.7.1]] , Table 11.13 and [[#Atlas.10.2\|Atlas.10.2]] ), declines in high-intensity rainfall events ( ''low'' to ''medium confidenc'' e) (Table 11.14), regional sea level rises with strong storm surges and waves resulting in increased coastal flood intensity ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Chapter-12#12.4.7.4\|Section 12.4.7.4]] and [[#Atlas.10.2\|Atlas.10.2]] ), and increased intensity and intensification rates of tropical cyclones at global scale ( ''medium confidence'' ) (Sections 11.7.1.2 and 12.4.7.3) and ocean acidification ( ''virtually certain'' ) (Chapters 2, 6 and 9, and [[#Atlas.3.2\|Atlas.3.2]] ).		Cross-Chapter Box [[#Atlas.2\|Atlas.2]] : presents an overview of observed sub-regional trends relevant to water resources in some Small Islands and island regions largely from 1951. Some general observed climate trends include higher magnitude and frequency of temperatures including warm extremes ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Chapter-12#12.4.7.1\|Section 12.4.7.1]] , Table 11.13 and [[#Atlas.10.2\|Atlas.10.2]] ), declines in high-intensity rainfall events ( ''low'' to ''medium confidenc'' e) (Table 11.14), regional sea level rises with strong storm surges and waves resulting in increased coastal flood intensity ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Chapter-12#12.4.7.4\|Section 12.4.7.4]] and [[#Atlas.10.2\|Atlas.10.2]] ), and increased intensity and intensification rates of tropical cyclones at global scale ( ''medium confidence'' ) (Sections 11.7.1.2 and 12.4.7.3) and ocean acidification ( ''virtually certain'' ) (Chapters 2, 6 and 9, and [[#Atlas.3.2\|Atlas.3.2]] ).

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	Sea level rise is ''very likely'' to continue in all Small Island regions (Sections 9.6.3.3 and 12.4.7.4, and Figure Atlas.28) and its effects will be compounded by TC surge events. In general, the most intense TCs are ''likely'' to intensify and produce more flood rains with warming, however detailed effects of climate change on TCs will vary by region ( [[IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.7.1\|Section 11.7.1]] ; [[#Knutson--2019\|Knutson et al., 2019]] ). [[#Bailey--2016\|Bailey et al. (2016)]] projected a 20% decline in groundwater availability by 2050 in coral atoll islands of the Federated States of Micronesia and stressed that under higher sea level rises the decrease could be higher than 50% due to marine water intrusion into aquifers, as well as drought events.		Sea level rise is ''very likely'' to continue in all Small Island regions (Sections 9.6.3.3 and 12.4.7.4, and Figure Atlas.28) and its effects will be compounded by TC surge events. In general, the most intense TCs are ''likely'' to intensify and produce more flood rains with warming, however detailed effects of climate change on TCs will vary by region ( [[IPCC:Wg1:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.7.1\|Section 11.7.1]] ; [[#Knutson--2019\|Knutson et al., 2019]] ). [[#Bailey--2016\|Bailey et al. (2016)]] projected a 20% decline in groundwater availability by 2050 in coral atoll islands of the Federated States of Micronesia and stressed that under higher sea level rises the decrease could be higher than 50% due to marine water intrusion into aquifers, as well as drought events.

	~~'''~~'''Summary of information distilled from multiple lines of evidence'''~~'''~~		'''Summary of information distilled from multiple lines of evidence'''

	It is ''very likely'' that most Small Islands have warmed over the period of instrumental records. The clearest precipitation trend is a ''likely'' decrease in JJA rainfall over the Caribbean since 1950. There is ''limited evidence'' and ''low agreement'' for the cause of the observed drying trend, whether it is mainly caused by decadal-scale internal variability or anthropogenic forcing, but it is ''likely'' that it will continue over coming decades. It is ''likely'' that drying has occurred since the mid-20th century in some parts of the Pacific poleward of 20° latitude in both the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere and that these changes will continue over coming decades. Rainfall trends in most other Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean Small Islands are mixed and largely non-significant. It is ''very likely'' that sea levels will continue to rise in all Small Island regions, and this will result in increased coastal flooding with the potential to increase saltwater intrusion into aquifers in Small Islands.		It is ''very likely'' that most Small Islands have warmed over the period of instrumental records. The clearest precipitation trend is a ''likely'' decrease in JJA rainfall over the Caribbean since 1950. There is ''limited evidence'' and ''low agreement'' for the cause of the observed drying trend, whether it is mainly caused by decadal-scale internal variability or anthropogenic forcing, but it is ''likely'' that it will continue over coming decades. It is ''likely'' that drying has occurred since the mid-20th century in some parts of the Pacific poleward of 20° latitude in both the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere and that these changes will continue over coming decades. Rainfall trends in most other Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean Small Islands are mixed and largely non-significant. It is ''very likely'' that sea levels will continue to rise in all Small Island regions, and this will result in increased coastal flooding with the potential to increase saltwater intrusion into aquifers in Small Islands.

172.18.0.1: /* Atlas */

2026-05-13T13:57:19Z

Atlas

imported>Design: /* References */

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References

Show changes

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:57, 13 May 2026
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	<div id="chapter-authors"></div>		<div id="chapter-authors"></div>

	Coordinating Lead Authors:		'''Coordinating Lead Authors:'''

	José Manuel Gutiérrez (Spain), Richard G. Jones (United Kingdom), Gemma Teresa Narisma (Philippines)		José Manuel Gutiérrez (Spain), Richard G. Jones (United Kingdom), Gemma Teresa Narisma (Philippines)

	Lead Authors:		'''Lead Authors:'''

	Lincoln M. Alves (Brazil), Muhammad Amjad (Pakistan), Irina V. Gorodetskaya (Portugal/Belgium, The Russian Federation), Michael Grose (Australia), Nana Ama Browne Klutse (Ghana), Svitlana Krakovska (Ukraine), Jian Li (China), Daniel Martínez-Castro (Cuba, Peru/Cuba), Linda O. Mearns (United States of America), Sebastian H. Mernild (Denmark, Norway/Denmark), Thanh Ngo-Duc (Vietnam), Bart van den Hurk (The Netherlands), Jin-Ho Yoon (Republic of Korea)		Lincoln M. Alves (Brazil), Muhammad Amjad (Pakistan), Irina V. Gorodetskaya (Portugal/Belgium, The Russian Federation), Michael Grose (Australia), Nana Ama Browne Klutse (Ghana), Svitlana Krakovska (Ukraine), Jian Li (China), Daniel Martínez-Castro (Cuba, Peru/Cuba), Linda O. Mearns (United States of America), Sebastian H. Mernild (Denmark, Norway/Denmark), Thanh Ngo-Duc (Vietnam), Bart van den Hurk (The Netherlands), Jin-Ho Yoon (Republic of Korea)

	Contributing Authors (Atlas Chapter):		'''Contributing Authors (Atlas Chapter):'''

	Maialen Iturbide (Spain), Ma. Laurice Preciado Jamero (Philippines), Émilie Vanvyve (United Kingdom/Belgium), Guðfinna Aðalgeirsdóttir (Iceland), Cécile Agosta (France), Mansour Almazroui (Saudi Arabia), Jorge Baño-Medina (Spain), Joaquín Bedia (Spain), María Laura Bettolli (Argentina), Donovan Campbell (Jamaica), Ana Casanueva (Spain), Christophe Cassou (France), Tereza Cavazos (Mexico), Abel Centella-Artola (Cuba), Ruth Cerezo-Mota (Mexico), Haoming Chen (China), Annalisa Cherchi (Italy), Erika Coppola (Italy), Faye Abigail Cruz (Philippines), Joseph D. Daron (United Kingdom), Chirag Dhara (India), Alejandro di Luca (Australia, Canada/Argentina), Arona Diedhiou (Côte d’Ivoire/Senegal), Javier Díez Sierra (Spain), Alessandro Dosio (Italy), Jason Evans (Australia), Vincent Favier (France), Erich Fischer (Switzerland), Sebastian Gerland (Norway/Germany), Subimal Ghosh (India), Natalia Gnatiuk (The Russian Federation/Ukraine), Melissa I. Gomis (France/Switzerland), Patrick Grenier (Canada), David S. Gutzler (United States of America), Rein Haarsma (The Netherlands), Rafiq Hamdi (Belgium), Cédric Hananel (Belgium/France), Ed Hawkins (United Kingdom), Mark Hemer (Australia), Kevin Hennessy (Australia), Nazrul Islam (Bangladesh/Saudi Arabia), Sanjay Jayanarayanan (India), Liew Juneng (Malaysia), Eleni Katragkou (Greece), Elena Kharyutkina (The Russian Federation), Megan Kirchmeier-Young (Canada/United States of America), Akio Kitoh (Japan), Erik Kjellström (Sweden), Yu Kosaka (Japan), James Kossin (United States of America), Kenneth Kunkel (United States of America), June-Yi Lee (Republic of Korea), Christopher Lennard (South Africa), Piero Lionello (Italy), Marta Pereira Llopart (Brazil), Ian Macadam (Australia/United Kingdom), Douglas Maraun (Austria/Germany), Seth McGinnis (United States of America), Simon McGree (Australia/Fiji, Australia), Wilfran Moufouma-Okia (France), Grigory Nikulin (Sweden/The Russian Federation), Francis Nkrumah (Ghana), Dirk Notz (Germany), Andrew Orr (United Kingdom), Sarah Osima (Tanzania), Tugba Ozturk (Turkey), Mohammad Rahimi (Iran), Mehwish Ramzan (Pakistan), Rosh Ranasinghe (The Netherlands/Sri Lanka, Australia), Johan Reyns (The Netherlands/Belgium), Annette Rinke (Germany), Daniela Schmidt (United Kingdom), Stéphane Sénési (France), Sonia I. Seneviratne (Switzerland), Chris Shaw (United Kingdom), Stefan Sobolowski (Norway/United States of America), Samuel Somot (France), Anna A. Sörensson (Argentina), Tannecia S. Stephenson (Jamaica), Mouhamadou Bamba Sylla (Rwanda/Senegal), Fredolin Tangang (Malaysia), Claas Teichmann (Germany), Peter W. Thorne (Ireland/United Kingdom), Blair Trewin (Australia), Geert-Jan van Oldenborgh (The Netherlands), Jan Melchior van Wessem (The Netherlands), Robert Vautard (France), Sergio M. Vicente-Serrano (Spain), Alejandro Vichot-Llano (Cuba), Etienne Vignon (France), Yu Xiaoyong (China, Germany), Xuebin Zhang (Canada)		Maialen Iturbide (Spain), Ma. Laurice Preciado Jamero (Philippines), Émilie Vanvyve (United Kingdom/Belgium), Guðfinna Aðalgeirsdóttir (Iceland), Cécile Agosta (France), Mansour Almazroui (Saudi Arabia), Jorge Baño-Medina (Spain), Joaquín Bedia (Spain), María Laura Bettolli (Argentina), Donovan Campbell (Jamaica), Ana Casanueva (Spain), Christophe Cassou (France), Tereza Cavazos (Mexico), Abel Centella-Artola (Cuba), Ruth Cerezo-Mota (Mexico), Haoming Chen (China), Annalisa Cherchi (Italy), Erika Coppola (Italy), Faye Abigail Cruz (Philippines), Joseph D. Daron (United Kingdom), Chirag Dhara (India), Alejandro di Luca (Australia, Canada/Argentina), Arona Diedhiou (Côte d’Ivoire/Senegal), Javier Díez Sierra (Spain), Alessandro Dosio (Italy), Jason Evans (Australia), Vincent Favier (France), Erich Fischer (Switzerland), Sebastian Gerland (Norway/Germany), Subimal Ghosh (India), Natalia Gnatiuk (The Russian Federation/Ukraine), Melissa I. Gomis (France/Switzerland), Patrick Grenier (Canada), David S. Gutzler (United States of America), Rein Haarsma (The Netherlands), Rafiq Hamdi (Belgium), Cédric Hananel (Belgium/France), Ed Hawkins (United Kingdom), Mark Hemer (Australia), Kevin Hennessy (Australia), Nazrul Islam (Bangladesh/Saudi Arabia), Sanjay Jayanarayanan (India), Liew Juneng (Malaysia), Eleni Katragkou (Greece), Elena Kharyutkina (The Russian Federation), Megan Kirchmeier-Young (Canada/United States of America), Akio Kitoh (Japan), Erik Kjellström (Sweden), Yu Kosaka (Japan), James Kossin (United States of America), Kenneth Kunkel (United States of America), June-Yi Lee (Republic of Korea), Christopher Lennard (South Africa), Piero Lionello (Italy), Marta Pereira Llopart (Brazil), Ian Macadam (Australia/United Kingdom), Douglas Maraun (Austria/Germany), Seth McGinnis (United States of America), Simon McGree (Australia/Fiji, Australia), Wilfran Moufouma-Okia (France), Grigory Nikulin (Sweden/The Russian Federation), Francis Nkrumah (Ghana), Dirk Notz (Germany), Andrew Orr (United Kingdom), Sarah Osima (Tanzania), Tugba Ozturk (Turkey), Mohammad Rahimi (Iran), Mehwish Ramzan (Pakistan), Rosh Ranasinghe (The Netherlands/Sri Lanka, Australia), Johan Reyns (The Netherlands/Belgium), Annette Rinke (Germany), Daniela Schmidt (United Kingdom), Stéphane Sénési (France), Sonia I. Seneviratne (Switzerland), Chris Shaw (United Kingdom), Stefan Sobolowski (Norway/United States of America), Samuel Somot (France), Anna A. Sörensson (Argentina), Tannecia S. Stephenson (Jamaica), Mouhamadou Bamba Sylla (Rwanda/Senegal), Fredolin Tangang (Malaysia), Claas Teichmann (Germany), Peter W. Thorne (Ireland/United Kingdom), Blair Trewin (Australia), Geert-Jan van Oldenborgh (The Netherlands), Jan Melchior van Wessem (The Netherlands), Robert Vautard (France), Sergio M. Vicente-Serrano (Spain), Alejandro Vichot-Llano (Cuba), Etienne Vignon (France), Yu Xiaoyong (China, Germany), Xuebin Zhang (Canada)

	Contributing Authors (Interactive Atlas):		'''Contributing Authors (Interactive Atlas):'''

	Maialen Iturbide (Spain), Jorge Baño-Medina (Spain), Joaquín Bedia (Spain), Ana Casanueva (Spain), Ezequiel Cimadevilla (Spain), Antonio S. Cofiño (Spain), Javier Díez Sierra (Spain), Jesús Fernández (Spain), Markel García (Spain), Sixto Herrera (Spain), Rodrigo Manzanas (Spain), Josipa Milovac (Spain/Croatia), Juan José Sáenz de la Torre (Spain), Daniel San Martín (Spain), Iván Sánchez (Spain), Elena Suárez (Spain), Max Tuni (Spain)		Maialen Iturbide (Spain), Jorge Baño-Medina (Spain), Joaquín Bedia (Spain), Ana Casanueva (Spain), Ezequiel Cimadevilla (Spain), Antonio S. Cofiño (Spain), Javier Díez Sierra (Spain), Jesús Fernández (Spain), Markel García (Spain), Sixto Herrera (Spain), Rodrigo Manzanas (Spain), Josipa Milovac (Spain/Croatia), Juan José Sáenz de la Torre (Spain), Daniel San Martín (Spain), Iván Sánchez (Spain), Elena Suárez (Spain), Max Tuni (Spain)

	Review Editors:		'''Review Editors:'''

	Inés Camilloni (Argentina), Jens Hesselbjerg Christensen (Denmark), Fatima Driouech (Morocco)		Inés Camilloni (Argentina), Jens Hesselbjerg Christensen (Denmark), Fatima Driouech (Morocco)

	Chapter Scientists:		'''Chapter Scientists:'''

	Maialen Iturbide (Spain), Ma. Laurice Preciado Jamero (Philippines), Émilie Vanvyve (United Kingdom/Belgium)		Maialen Iturbide (Spain), Ma. Laurice Preciado Jamero (Philippines), Émilie Vanvyve (United Kingdom/Belgium)
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	<div id="chapter-citation"></div>		<div id="chapter-citation"></div>

	This chapter should be cited as:		'''This chapter should be cited as:'''

	Gutiérrez, J.M., R.G. Jones, G.T. Narisma, L.M. Alves, M. Amjad, I.V. Gorodetskaya, M. Grose, N.A.B. Klutse, S. Krakovska, J. Li, D. Martínez-Castro, L.O. Mearns, S.H. Mernild, T. Ngo-Duc, B. van den Hurk, and J.-H. Yoon, 2021: Atlas. In ''Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change'' [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1927–2058, doi: [https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896.021 10.1017/9781009157896.021] .		Gutiérrez, J.M., R.G. Jones, G.T. Narisma, L.M. Alves, M. Amjad, I.V. Gorodetskaya, M. Grose, N.A.B. Klutse, S. Krakovska, J. Li, D. Martínez-Castro, L.O. Mearns, S.H. Mernild, T. Ngo-Duc, B. van den Hurk, and J.-H. Yoon, 2021: Atlas. In ''Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change'' [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1927–2058, doi: [https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896.021 10.1017/9781009157896.021] .