IPCC:AR6/WGI/TS - Revision history

Laura: /* TS.4.3.2.10 Other Typological Domains */

2026-06-19T08:15:48Z

TS.4.3.2.10 Other Typological Domains

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	<div id="box-ts.14" class="h2-container box-container"></div>		<div id="box-ts.14" class="h2-container box-container"></div>
			<div class="container-box col-regular">
	~~'''~~Box TS.14 \| Urban Areas~~'''~~		== Box TS.14 \| Urban Areas ==

	<div id="h2-35-siblings" class="h2-siblings"></div>		<div id="h2-35-siblings" class="h2-siblings"></div>

	'''With global warming, urban areas and cities will be affected by more frequent occurrences of extreme climate events, such as heatwaves, with more hot days and warm nights as well as sea level rise and increases in tropical cyclone storm surge and rainfall intensity that will increase the probability of coastal city flooding (''high confidence''). Links to chapters Box 10.3, 11.3, 11.5, 12.3, 12.4'''		'''With global warming, urban areas and cities will be affected by more frequent occurrences of extreme climate events, such as heatwaves, with more hot days and warm nights as well as sea level rise and increases in tropical cyclone storm surge and rainfall intensity that will increase the probability of coastal city flooding (''high confidence''). Links to chapters Box 10.3, 11.3, 11.5, 12.3, 12.4'''

	Urban areas have special interactions with the climate system, for instance in terms of heat islands and altering the water cycle, and thereby will be more affected by extreme climate events such as extreme heat (''high confidence''). With global warming, increasing relative sea level compounded by increasing tropical cyclone storm surge and rainfall intensity will increase the probability of coastal city flooding (''high confidence''). Arctic coastal settlements are particularly exposed to climate change due to sea ice retreat (''high confidence''). Improvements in urban climate modelling and climate monitoring networks have contributed to understanding the mutual interaction between regional and urban climate (''high confidence''). Links to chapters Box 10.3, 11.3, 11.5, 12.3, 12.4		Urban areas have special interactions with the climate system, for instance in terms of heat islands and altering the water cycle, and thereby will be more affected by extreme climate events such as extreme heat (''high confidence''). With global warming, increasing relative sea level compounded by increasing tropical cyclone storm surge and rainfall intensity will increase the probability of coastal city flooding (''high confidence''). Arctic coastal settlements are particularly exposed to climate change due to sea ice retreat (''high confidence''). Improvements in urban climate modelling and climate monitoring networks have contributed to understanding the mutual interaction between regional and urban climate (''high confidence''). Links to chapters Box 10.3, 11.3, 11.5, 12.3, 12.4

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	Both sea levels and air temperatures are projected to rise in most coastal settlements (''high confidence''). There is ''high confidence'' in an increase in pluvial flood potential in urban areas where extreme precipitation is projected to increase, especially at high global warming levels. Links to chapters 11.4, 11.5, 12.4		Both sea levels and air temperatures are projected to rise in most coastal settlements (''high confidence''). There is ''high confidence'' in an increase in pluvial flood potential in urban areas where extreme precipitation is projected to increase, especially at high global warming levels. Links to chapters 11.4, 11.5, 12.4
			</div>

	~~-----~~		== Footnotes ==

	<div id="footnote-020" class="_idFootnote"></div>		<div id="footnote-020" class="_idFootnote"></div>

Laura: /* TS.4.3.2.10 Other Typological Domains */

2026-06-19T08:15:08Z

TS.4.3.2.10 Other Typological Domains

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	'''Some types of regions found in different continents face common climate challenges regardless of their location. These include biodiversity hot spots that will ''very likely'' see even more extreme heat and droughts, mountain areas where a projected raising in the freezing level height will alter snow and ice conditions (''high confidence''), and tropical forests that are increasingly prone to fire weather (''medium confidence''). Links to chapters 8.4, Box 8.2, 9.5, 12.3, 12.4'''		'''Some types of regions found in different continents face common climate challenges regardless of their location. These include biodiversity hot spots that will ''very likely'' see even more extreme heat and droughts, mountain areas where a projected raising in the freezing level height will alter snow and ice conditions (''high confidence''), and tropical forests that are increasingly prone to fire weather (''medium confidence''). Links to chapters 8.4, Box 8.2, 9.5, 12.3, 12.4'''

	Biodiversity hotspots located around the world will each face unique challenges in CID changes. Heat, drought and length of dry season, wildfire weather, sea surface temperature and deoxygenation are relevant drivers to terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems and have marked increasing trends. Links to chapters 12.3, 12.4.10.1		Biodiversity hotspots located around the world will each face unique challenges in CID changes. Heat, drought and length of dry season, wildfire weather, sea surface temperature and deoxygenation are relevant drivers to terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems and have marked increasing trends. Links to chapters 12.3, 12.4.10.1

Laura: /* TS.4.3.2.9 Ocean */

2026-06-19T08:15:00Z

TS.4.3.2.9 Ocean

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	'''The Indian Ocean, western equatorial Pacific Ocean and western boundary currents have warmed faster than the global average (''very high confidence''), with the largest changes in the frequency of marine heatwaves (MHWs) projected in the western tropical Pacific and the Arctic Ocean (''medium confidence''). The Pacific and Southern Ocean are projected to freshen and the Atlantic to become more saline (''medium confidence''). Anthropogenic warming is ''very likely'' to further decrease ocean oxygen concentrations, and this deoxygenation is expected to persist for thousands of years (''medium confidence''). Arctic sea ice losses are projected to continue, leading to a practically ice-free Arctic in September by the end of the 21st century under high CO <sub>2</sub> emissions scenarios (''high confidence''). Links to chapters 2.3, 5.3, 9.2, 9.3, Box 9.2, 12.3.6, 12.4.8'''		'''The Indian Ocean, western equatorial Pacific Ocean and western boundary currents have warmed faster than the global average (''very high confidence''), with the largest changes in the frequency of marine heatwaves (MHWs) projected in the western tropical Pacific and the Arctic Ocean (''medium confidence''). The Pacific and Southern Ocean are projected to freshen and the Atlantic to become more saline (''medium confidence''). Anthropogenic warming is ''very likely'' to further decrease ocean oxygen concentrations, and this deoxygenation is expected to persist for thousands of years (''medium confidence''). Arctic sea ice losses are projected to continue, leading to a practically ice-free Arctic in September by the end of the 21st century under high CO <sub>2</sub> emissions scenarios (''high confidence''). Links to chapters 2.3, 5.3, 9.2, 9.3, Box 9.2, 12.3.6, 12.4.8'''

	In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.		In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.

Laura: /* TS.4.3.2.8 Polar */

2026-06-19T08:14:53Z

TS.4.3.2.8 Polar

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	'''It is ''virtually certain'' that surface warming in the Arctic will continue to be more pronounced than the global average warming over the 21st century. An intensification of the polar water cycle will increase mean precipitation, with precipitation intensity becoming stronger and more ''likely'' to be rainfall rather than snowfall (''high confidence''). Permafrost warming, loss of seasonal snow cover, and glacier melt will be widespread (''high confidence''). There is ''high confidence'' that both the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have lost mass since 1992 and will continue to lose mass throughout this century under all emissions scenarios. Relative sea level and coastal flooding are projected to increase in areas other than regions with substantial land uplift (''medium confidence''). Links to chapters 2.3, 3.4, 4.3, 4.5, 7.4, 8.2, 8.4, Box 8.2, 9.5, 12.4.9, Atlas.11.1, Atlas.11.2'''		'''It is ''virtually certain'' that surface warming in the Arctic will continue to be more pronounced than the global average warming over the 21st century. An intensification of the polar water cycle will increase mean precipitation, with precipitation intensity becoming stronger and more ''likely'' to be rainfall rather than snowfall (''high confidence''). Permafrost warming, loss of seasonal snow cover, and glacier melt will be widespread (''high confidence''). There is ''high confidence'' that both the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have lost mass since 1992 and will continue to lose mass throughout this century under all emissions scenarios. Relative sea level and coastal flooding are projected to increase in areas other than regions with substantial land uplift (''medium confidence''). Links to chapters 2.3, 3.4, 4.3, 4.5, 7.4, 8.2, 8.4, Box 8.2, 9.5, 12.4.9, Atlas.11.1, Atlas.11.2'''

	In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.		In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.

Laura: /* TS.4.3.2.7 Small Islands */

2026-06-19T08:14:44Z

TS.4.3.2.7 Small Islands

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	'''Additional regional changes in Small Islands, besides those features described in Section TS.4.3.1, include a ''likely'' decrease in rainfall during boreal summer in the Caribbean and in some parts of the Pacific islands poleward of 20° latitude in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. These drying trends will ''likely'' continue in coming decades. Fewer but more intense tropical cyclones are projected starting from a 2°C GWL (''medium confidence''). Links to chapters 9.6, 11.3, 11.4, 11.7, 11.9, 12.4.7, Atlas.10.2, Atlas.10.4, Cross-Chapter Box Atlas.2'''		'''Additional regional changes in Small Islands, besides those features described in Section TS.4.3.1, include a ''likely'' decrease in rainfall during boreal summer in the Caribbean and in some parts of the Pacific islands poleward of 20° latitude in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. These drying trends will ''likely'' continue in coming decades. Fewer but more intense tropical cyclones are projected starting from a 2°C GWL (''medium confidence''). Links to chapters 9.6, 11.3, 11.4, 11.7, 11.9, 12.4.7, Atlas.10.2, Atlas.10.4, Cross-Chapter Box Atlas.2'''

	In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.		In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.

Laura: /* TS.4.3.2.6 North America */

2026-06-19T08:14:34Z

TS.4.3.2.6 North America

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	'''Additional regional changes in North America, besides those features described in Section TS.4.3.1, include changes in North American wet and dry CIDs, which are largely organized by the north-east (more wet) to south-west (more dry) pattern of mean precipitation change, although heavy precipitation increases are widespread (''high confidence''). Increasing evaporative demand will expand agricultural and ecological drought and fire weather (particularly in summertime) in Central North America, Western North America and Northern Central America (from ''medium'' to ''high confidence''). Severe wind storms, tropical cyclones and dust storms in North America are shifting toward more extreme characteristics (''medium confidence''), and both observations and projections point to strong changes in the seasonal and geographic range of snow and ice conditions in the coming decades (''very high confidence''). General findings for relative sea level, coastal flooding and erosion will not apply for areas with substantial land uplift around the Hudson Bay and Southern Alaska. Links to chapters 8.4, 11.4, 11.5, 11.7, 11.9, 12.4, Atlas.9.4'''		'''Additional regional changes in North America, besides those features described in Section TS.4.3.1, include changes in North American wet and dry CIDs, which are largely organized by the north-east (more wet) to south-west (more dry) pattern of mean precipitation change, although heavy precipitation increases are widespread (''high confidence''). Increasing evaporative demand will expand agricultural and ecological drought and fire weather (particularly in summertime) in Central North America, Western North America and Northern Central America (from ''medium'' to ''high confidence''). Severe wind storms, tropical cyclones and dust storms in North America are shifting toward more extreme characteristics (''medium confidence''), and both observations and projections point to strong changes in the seasonal and geographic range of snow and ice conditions in the coming decades (''very high confidence''). General findings for relative sea level, coastal flooding and erosion will not apply for areas with substantial land uplift around the Hudson Bay and Southern Alaska. Links to chapters 8.4, 11.4, 11.5, 11.7, 11.9, 12.4, Atlas.9.4'''

	In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.		In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.

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	<span id="ts.4.3.2.7-small-islands"></span>		<span id="ts.4.3.2.7-small-islands"></span>

	===== TS.4.3.2.7 Small Islands =====		===== TS.4.3.2.7 Small Islands =====

Laura: /* TS.4.3.2.5 Europe */

2026-06-19T08:14:19Z

TS.4.3.2.5 Europe

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	<div id="h4-6-siblings" class="h4-siblings"></div>		<div id="h4-6-siblings" class="h4-siblings"></div>

	'''Additional regional changes in Europe, besides those features described in Section TS.4.3.1, include observed increases in pluvial flooding in Northern Europe and hydrological and agricultural/ecological droughts in the Mediterranean (''high confidence''), which have been attributed to human influence with ''high'' and ''medium confidence'' , respectively. Increased mean precipitation amounts at high latitudes in boreal winter and reduced summer precipitation in southern Europe are projected starting from a 2°C GWL (''high confidence''). Aridity, agricultural and hydrological droughts and fire weather conditions will increase in the Mediterranean region starting from 2°C GWL (''high confidence''). Pluvial flooding will increase everywhere with ''high confidence'' except for ''medium confidence'' in the Mediterranean; in Western and Central Europe this also applies to river flooding starting from a 2°C GWL (''high confidence''). Most periglacial processes in Northern Europe are projected to disappear by the end of the 21st century, even for a low warming scenario (''medium confidence''). Links to chapters 8.3, 11.3, 11.9, 12.4.5, 12.5.2, Atlas.8.2, Atlas.8.4'''		'''Additional regional changes in Europe, besides those features described in Section TS.4.3.1, include observed increases in pluvial flooding in Northern Europe and hydrological and agricultural/ecological droughts in the Mediterranean (''high confidence''), which have been attributed to human influence with ''high'' and ''medium confidence'', respectively. Increased mean precipitation amounts at high latitudes in boreal winter and reduced summer precipitation in southern Europe are projected starting from a 2°C GWL (''high confidence''). Aridity, agricultural and hydrological droughts and fire weather conditions will increase in the Mediterranean region starting from 2°C GWL (''high confidence''). Pluvial flooding will increase everywhere with ''high confidence'' except for ''medium confidence'' in the Mediterranean; in Western and Central Europe this also applies to river flooding starting from a 2°C GWL (''high confidence''). Most periglacial processes in Northern Europe are projected to disappear by the end of the 21st century, even for a low warming scenario (''medium confidence''). Links to chapters 8.3, 11.3, 11.9, 12.4.5, 12.5.2, Atlas.8.2, Atlas.8.4'''

	In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.		In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.

Laura: /* TS.4.3.2.4 Central and South America */

2026-06-19T08:14:04Z

TS.4.3.2.4 Central and South America

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	'''Additional regional changes in Central and South America, besides those features described in Section TS.4.3.1, include increases in mean and extreme precipitation in South-Eastern South America since the 1960s (''high confidence'') (Section TS.4.2.3). Decreasing trends in mean precipitation and increasing trends in agricultural and ecological drought are observed over North-Eastern South America (''medium confidence''). The intensity and frequency of extreme precipitation and pluvial floods is projected to increase over South-Eastern South America, Southern South America, Northern South America, South American Monsoon and North-Eastern South America (''medium confidence'') for a 2°C GWL and above. Increases of agricultural and ecological drought are projected in South America Monsoon and Southern South America, and fire weather is projected to increase over several regions (Northern South America, the South American Monsoon, North-Eastern South America and South-Western South America) (''high confidence''). Links to chapters 8.3, 8.4, 11.3, 11.4, 11.9, Table 11.13, Table 11.14, Table 11.15, 12.4.4.2, Atlas.7.1, Atlas.7.2'''		'''Additional regional changes in Central and South America, besides those features described in Section TS.4.3.1, include increases in mean and extreme precipitation in South-Eastern South America since the 1960s (''high confidence'') (Section TS.4.2.3). Decreasing trends in mean precipitation and increasing trends in agricultural and ecological drought are observed over North-Eastern South America (''medium confidence''). The intensity and frequency of extreme precipitation and pluvial floods is projected to increase over South-Eastern South America, Southern South America, Northern South America, South American Monsoon and North-Eastern South America (''medium confidence'') for a 2°C GWL and above. Increases of agricultural and ecological drought are projected in South America Monsoon and Southern South America, and fire weather is projected to increase over several regions (Northern South America, the South American Monsoon, North-Eastern South America and South-Western South America) (''high confidence''). Links to chapters 8.3, 8.4, 11.3, 11.4, 11.9, Table 11.13, Table 11.14, Table 11.15, 12.4.4.2, Atlas.7.1, Atlas.7.2'''

	In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.		In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.

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	<span id="ts.4.3.2.5-europe"></span>		<span id="ts.4.3.2.5-europe"></span>

	===== TS.4.3.2.5 Europe =====		===== TS.4.3.2.5 Europe =====

Laura: /* TS.4.3.2.3 Australasia */

2026-06-19T08:13:51Z

TS.4.3.2.3 Australasia

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	<div id="h4-4-siblings" class="h4-siblings"></div>		<div id="h4-4-siblings" class="h4-siblings"></div>

	'''Additional regional changes in Australasia, besides those features described in Section TS.4.3.1, include a significant decrease in April to October rainfall in the south-west of the state of Western Australia, observed from 1910 to 2019 and attributable to human influence (''high confidence''), which is ''very likely'' to continue in future. Agricultural and ecological droughts and hydrological droughts have increased over Southern Australia (''medium confidence''), and meteorological droughts have decreased over Northern and Central Australia (''medium confidence''). Relative sea level has increased over the period 1993–2018 at a rate higher than GMSL around Australasia (''high confidence''). Sandy shorelines have retreated around the region, except in Southern Australia, where a shoreline progradation rate of 0.1 m yr <sup>–1</sup> has been observed.''' '''In the future, heavy precipitation and pluvial flooding are ''very likely'' to increase over Northern Australia and Central Australia, and they are ''likely'' to increase elsewhere in Australasia for global warming levels (GWLs) exceeding 2°C and with ''medium confidence'' for a 2°C GWL. Agricultural and ecological droughts are projected to increase in Southern and Eastern Australia (''medium confidence'') for a 2°C GWL. Fire weather is projected to increase throughout Australia (''high confidence'') and New Zealand (''medium confidence''). Snowfall is expected to decrease throughout the region at high altitudes in both Australia (''high confidence'') and New Zealand (''medium confidence''), with glaciers receding in New Zealand (''high confidence''). Links to chapters 11.4, Table 11.6, 12.3, 12.4.3, Atlas.6.4, Atlas.6.5'''		'''Additional regional changes in Australasia, besides those features described in Section TS.4.3.1, include a significant decrease in April to October rainfall in the south-west of the state of Western Australia, observed from 1910 to 2019 and attributable to human influence (''high confidence''), which is ''very likely'' to continue in future. Agricultural and ecological droughts and hydrological droughts have increased over Southern Australia (''medium confidence''), and meteorological droughts have decreased over Northern and Central Australia (''medium confidence''). Relative sea level has increased over the period 1993–2018 at a rate higher than GMSL around Australasia (''high confidence''). Sandy shorelines have retreated around the region, except in Southern Australia, where a shoreline progradation rate of 0.1 m yr <sup>–1</sup> has been observed.'''

			'''In the future, heavy precipitation and pluvial flooding are ''very likely'' to increase over Northern Australia and Central Australia, and they are ''likely'' to increase elsewhere in Australasia for global warming levels (GWLs) exceeding 2°C and with ''medium confidence'' for a 2°C GWL. Agricultural and ecological droughts are projected to increase in Southern and Eastern Australia (''medium confidence'') for a 2°C GWL. Fire weather is projected to increase throughout Australia (''high confidence'') and New Zealand (''medium confidence''). Snowfall is expected to decrease throughout the region at high altitudes in both Australia (''high confidence'') and New Zealand (''medium confidence''), with glaciers receding in New Zealand (''high confidence''). Links to chapters 11.4, Table 11.6, 12.3, 12.4.3, Atlas.6.4, Atlas.6.5'''

	In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.		In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.

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	<span id="ts.4.3.2.4-central-and-south-america"></span>		<span id="ts.4.3.2.4-central-and-south-america"></span>

	===== TS.4.3.2.4 Central and South America =====		===== TS.4.3.2.4 Central and South America =====

Laura: /* TS.4.3.2.2 Asia */

2026-06-19T08:13:31Z

TS.4.3.2.2 Asia

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	Due to the high climatological and geographical heterogeneity of Asia, some assessment findings below are summarized over five sub-continental areas comprising one or more of the AR6 WGI reference regions (Box TS.12): East Asia (EAS+ECA), North Asia (WSB+ESB+RFE), South Asia (SAS), South East Asia (SEA) and South West Asia (ARP+WCA).		Due to the high climatological and geographical heterogeneity of Asia, some assessment findings below are summarized over five sub-continental areas comprising one or more of the AR6 WGI reference regions (Box TS.12): East Asia (EAS+ECA), North Asia (WSB+ESB+RFE), South Asia (SAS), South East Asia (SEA) and South West Asia (ARP+WCA).

	'''Additional regional changes in Asia, besides those features described in Section TS.4.3.1, include historical trends of annual precipitation that show considerable regional differences (''high confidence''). East Asian Monsoon precipitation has changed, with drying in the north and wetting in the south since the 1950s, and annual mean precipitation totals ''very likely'' have increased over most territories of North Asia since the mid-1970s (''high confidence''). South Asian summer monsoon precipitation decreased over several areas since the mid-20th century (''high confidence'') but is ''likely'' to increase during the 21st century, with enhanced interannual variability. (Box TS.13)''' '''Increases in precipitation and river floods are projected over much of Asia: in the annual mean precipitation in East, North, South and South East Asia (''high confidence''); for extremes in East, South, West Central, North and South East Asia (''high confidence'') and Arabian Peninsula (''medium confidence''); and for river floods in East, South and South East Asia and East Siberia (''medium confidence''). Aridity in East and West Central Asia is projected to increase, especially beyond the middle of the 21st century and global warming levels beyond 2°C (''medium confidence''). Fire weather seasons are projected to lengthen and intensify everywhere except South East Asia, Tibetan Plateau and Arabian Peninsula (''medium confidence'').''' '''Surface wind speeds have been decreasing in Asia (high confidence), but there is a large uncertainty in future trends, with medium confidence that mean wind speeds will decrease in North Asia, East Asia and Tibetan Plateau and that tropical cyclones will have decreasing frequency and increasing intensity overall in South East and East Asia.''' '''Over North Asia, increases in permafrost temperature and its thawing have been observed over recent decades (''high confidence''). Future projections indicate continuing decline in seasonal snow duration, glacial mass, and permafrost area by mid-century (''high confidence''). Snow-covered areas and snow volumes will decrease in most regions of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) during the 21st century, and snowline elevations will rise (''high confidence'') and glacier volumes are ''likely'' to decline with greater mass loss in higher CO <sub>2</sub> emissions scenarios. Heavy snowfall is increasing in East Asia and North Asia (''medium confidence'') but with limited evidence on future changes in hail and snow avalanches.''' '''Links to chapters 2.3, 8.3, 8.4, 9.5, 9.6, 10.6, Box 10.4, 11.4, 11.5, 11.7, 11.9, 12.4.2, Atlas.3.1, Atlas.5, Atlas.5.2, Atlas.5.3, Atlas.5.4, Atlas.5.5'''		'''Additional regional changes in Asia, besides those features described in Section TS.4.3.1, include historical trends of annual precipitation that show considerable regional differences (''high confidence''). East Asian Monsoon precipitation has changed, with drying in the north and wetting in the south since the 1950s, and annual mean precipitation totals ''very likely'' have increased over most territories of North Asia since the mid-1970s (''high confidence''). South Asian summer monsoon precipitation decreased over several areas since the mid-20th century (''high confidence'') but is ''likely'' to increase during the 21st century, with enhanced interannual variability. (Box TS.13)'''

			'''Increases in precipitation and river floods are projected over much of Asia: in the annual mean precipitation in East, North, South and South East Asia (''high confidence''); for extremes in East, South, West Central, North and South East Asia (''high confidence'') and Arabian Peninsula (''medium confidence''); and for river floods in East, South and South East Asia and East Siberia (''medium confidence''). Aridity in East and West Central Asia is projected to increase, especially beyond the middle of the 21st century and global warming levels beyond 2°C (''medium confidence''). Fire weather seasons are projected to lengthen and intensify everywhere except South East Asia, Tibetan Plateau and Arabian Peninsula (''medium confidence'').'''

			'''Surface wind speeds have been decreasing in Asia (high confidence), but there is a large uncertainty in future trends, with medium confidence that mean wind speeds will decrease in North Asia, East Asia and Tibetan Plateau and that tropical cyclones will have decreasing frequency and increasing intensity overall in South East and East Asia.'''

			'''Over North Asia, increases in permafrost temperature and its thawing have been observed over recent decades (''high confidence''). Future projections indicate continuing decline in seasonal snow duration, glacial mass, and permafrost area by mid-century (''high confidence''). Snow-covered areas and snow volumes will decrease in most regions of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) during the 21st century, and snowline elevations will rise (''high confidence'') and glacier volumes are ''likely'' to decline with greater mass loss in higher CO <sub>2</sub> emissions scenarios. Heavy snowfall is increasing in East Asia and North Asia (''medium confidence'') but with limited evidence on future changes in hail and snow avalanches.'''

			'''Links to chapters 2.3, 8.3, 8.4, 9.5, 9.6, 10.6, Box 10.4, 11.4, 11.5, 11.7, 11.9, 12.4.2, Atlas.3.1, Atlas.5, Atlas.5.2, Atlas.5.3, Atlas.5.4, Atlas.5.5'''

	In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.		In addition to the main changes summarized above and in Section TS.4.3.1, further details are given below.

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	<span id="ts.4.3.2.3-australasia"></span>		<span id="ts.4.3.2.3-australasia"></span>

	===== TS.4.3.2.3 Australasia =====		===== TS.4.3.2.3 Australasia =====